Ayurvedic Herbs & Botanicals

Abhrak

Abhrak (Mica) is one of the most important minerals in Rasa Shastra. Four types are described based on color: Shveta (white), Rakta (red), Peeta (yellow), and Krishna (black). Krishna Abhrak is considered the best. Abhrak Bhasma is prepared through extensive Puta processes (up to 1000 Putas for Sahasraputi Abhrak Bhasma). It is a supreme Rasayana used in tuberculosis, respiratory diseases, chronic fevers, diabetes, anemia, and general debility. Higher quality Bhasma (more Putas) is more effective and safer. It is considered the 'Amrita' among minerals. Verses: 94-100.

Acacia

Shatala (Acacia concinna) is mentioned in the text as Shikakai, widely used for hair care. The pods contain natural saponins that serve as a gentle hair cleanser. It is also used as a mild purgative and blood purifier. The pod decoction is used for skin diseases.

Aconite

Vatsanabha is Ayurveda's most lethal poison turned medicine. Purified through 7-day Gomutra Shodhana, dosed 1/8 to 1/4 Ratti, it cuts Sannipata fevers and Vata colic.

Agarwood

Agarwood is Krimija, the resinous heartwood born of fungal infection. Hot, bitter, and pungent, it calms Vata-Kapha, eases Hridroga, asthma, and stubborn skin disease.

Agastya Flowers

The flowers of Agastya (Sesbania grandiflora) are large, white or red, and edible. They are used as a vegetable, especially in South Indian cuisine. The flower juice is used for nasal polyps and sinusitis as nasal drops. The flowers have anti-inflammatory properties. They are cooling and useful in Pitta disorders.

Agate

A smokey-colored gem that protects children against fear, stimulates spiritual awakening and relieves kapha disorders

Arani

Agnimantha (Premna integrifolia), also known as Arani, is one of the Dashamula (Laghu Panchamula -- five small root drugs) group plants. The name 'Agnimantha' literally means 'fire churner', indicating its strong digestive fire-kindling properties. It is a large shrub or small tree found across India. The root bark is the main medicinal part. It is highly valued for its Deepana (appetizer) and Pachana (digestive) properties. Two species are described: Premna integrifolia (larger variety) and Premna latifolia Roxb. The plant is an important constituent of Dashamula formulations.

Ailanthus

Maharuksha (Ailanthus excelsa) is described as a large tree reaching 60 feet in height with compound leaves of 8-12 paired leaflets. It is found throughout India in hilly regions and plains. The bark is the primary medicinal part. The text describes it as a variety often confused with Mahaneem due to similar appearance. It has cooling and antipyretic properties and is used in fevers and parasitic conditions.

Ajwain

Deliciously aromatic, ajwain is a wonderful remedy for sluggish digestion and coughs. A truly warming seed.

Alcohol

Stimulant; depressant effect

Alexandrian Laurel

Khala Nagakesara is described as a variety of Nagakesara obtained from Ochrocarpus longifolius or Calophyllum inophyllum. It is used as a substitute for true Nagakesara (Mesua ferrea). The flowers and oil are used for wound healing and skin diseases. The oil (Calophyllum oil) has significant wound-healing and anti-inflammatory properties.

Alfalfa

Herb with astringent and slightly bitter taste, anti-vata and anti-kapha properties, anti-inflammatory, effective for cleansing toxins from the large intestine

Almond

Almond (Vatama) is Ayurveda's Medhya nut: 5-7 kernels soaked overnight, peeled at dawn, sharpen Smriti and rebuild Kshaya. Badam Rogan oils Vata skin and Nasya.

Almond

Badam (Indian Almond/Terminalia catappa) is a large spreading coastal tree. The kernel of the fruit is edible and tastes similar to true almonds. The bark is astringent. This should not be confused with the true almond (Prunus amygdalus). The leaves turn red before falling and are decorative. The kernel is nutritive but smaller and harder to extract than true almond. Dose: Kernel as food. Verse mentioned.

Aloe Vera

Kumari, Aloe Vera, is Ayurveda's cooling Rasayana for liver, skin, and stuck bowels. 10-20 ml gel cools Pitta and Raktapitta; dried Musabbar moves Apana Vayu.

Alternanthera

Matsyakshi (Alternanthera sessilis) is a small spreading herb found across India near wet areas. It is used as a pot herb and vegetable. The leaves are used medicinally for hair growth and eye health. It has cooling properties and is nutritious. The herb is commonly found in moist habitats and is used in traditional cooking. Dose: As vegetable.

Alum

Sphatika (Alum) is a translucent crystalline mineral. It is widely used both externally and internally. External uses include as a hemostatic (to stop bleeding), in eye wash, in skin diseases, and as an antiseptic gargle. Internally, purified alum is used in cough, diarrhea, and leucorrhea. Bhasma of Sphatika is used in respiratory disorders. It is a common household remedy. Verses: 117-118.

Amethyst

A purple, blue or violet gem that gives dignity, love, compassion and hope; helps control emotional temperament

Amla

Amla (Indian Gooseberry) is the most revered herb in Ayurveda — ranked by the Charaka Samhita as the single best Rasayana among all fruits. It contains one of the highest concentrations of Vitamin C found in any food (600–900 mg per fruit), stabilized by tannins so it remains potent even after drying. Classical texts classify it as Tridosha Shamaka — balancing to all three doshas — with a particular strength in cooling Pitta, nourishing the blood, and rebuilding tissues after illness.

Amra Vetasa

Amra Vetasa is described among the sour fruits. It is identified with Indian Rhubarb or related Polygonaceae species. The root is used as a purgative and in digestive disorders. It is sour and astringent. Used in small doses as a stomachic and in larger doses as a purgative. Dose: Root powder 1/2 to 1 masha. Verse: 55.

Angelica

One of the best tonics for women, nurturing uterine organs and regulating the menstrual cycle.

Annatto

Sinduri (Bixa orellana) is a small tree grown for its seeds which yield the natural dye Annatto (Sindoor). The seeds are covered with a bright red-orange aril containing the dye Bixin. The flowers are pink or white. The seed paste is used as a coloring agent in food and cosmetics. The leaves and roots are also used medicinally. The tree is 3-6 feet tall with heart-shaped leaves. Annatto dye (v4-8%) is extracted from seed coating. It is used in fevers and wound healing. The dye has been used traditionally for body painting and as a sindoor (vermillion). Verse: 30-32.

Sinduri)

Bixa orellana Linn. — seeds yield red dye; used for skin and blood disorders.

Apamarga

Apamarga is the prickly-chaff weed Ayurveda turns into Kshara, an alkaline ash that dissolves urinary stones, shrinks Arsha (hemorrhoids), and clears Krimi.

Apple

Sev (Apple) is a temperate fruit cultivated extensively in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. The fruit is sweet-astringent, nutritive and excellent for the heart. It is heavy to digest but nourishing. Apple is one of the most popular fruits globally. The fruit is eaten fresh, as juice and in preserves. It is beneficial in heart disease and general debility. Apple contains pectin which is beneficial for digestion. Dose: As food. Verse: 47.

Arabian Jasmine

Mallika is described as a specific cultivar of Jasminum sambac, distinct from the other jasmine varieties. The name 'Mallika' specifically refers to the semi-double or single-flowered Arabian jasmine. Used for similar purposes as other jasmines. Verse: 24-26.

Aragvadha

A gentle laxative used to clear pitta from the intestines.

Arimeda

Acacia leucophloea Willd. — bark used for oral health.

Arjaka

Orthosiphon pallidus Royle.

Arjuna

Arjuna is the heart-muscle Rasayana, Vagbhata's drug of choice for Hridroga. Bark powder 3-6g in warm milk steadies angina, lowers cholesterol, mends fractures.

Arka

Arkpushpi (Holostemma rheedianum) is a large climbing plant found in peninsular India. The root tubers are the medicinal part. It is used as a rejuvenative and is considered an excellent tonic for vision. The sweetish tuber is eaten raw and used as medicine. Found in the Western Ghats and southern regions of India.

Arkaraga

Clausena pentaphylla DC — synonym Ratnajyoti.

Narkul

Narkul (Arundo donax) is the giant reed, different from common reed. It grows to 10-12 feet. The root contains the alkaloid Gramine and Donaxarine. Used as a diuretic and galactagogue. The reed is also used for making musical instruments and writing implements.

Asclepias

Asclepias curassavica is described as having emetic properties - it is sometimes called Bastard Ipecacuanha. The milky latex contains Asclepiadin. The plant has opposite leaves and orange-red flower clusters. It is pungent, bitter, sharp, and hot in potency. Used as an emetic and for poison treatment. The latex is irritant and should be used cautiously. Verse ref: page 440.

Benincasa hispida)

Cucurbita pepo — winter melon, medhya rasayana

Ashoka

Ashoka is a famous uterine tonic specifically used for excess bleeding and pain. Lord Buddha was born under the ashoka tree and Lord Ram’s wife Śı-ta was held captive in an ashoka grove in Sri Lanka. It literally means ‘remover of sorrow’, attesting to its ability to cure pain and discomfort.

Ashwagandha

Ashwagandha is the Rasayana for stress-eaten sleep, hollowed energy, and frayed nerves. Hot, Madhura Vipaka, dosed 3-6g of root powder in warm milk nightly.

Ativisha

Found in Himalayas at high altitudes. The tuberous root is used. Important Bala Roga (pediatric) drug — given to children for digestive disorders and fever. One of the safest Aconitum species due to non-toxic alkaloid Atisine. Named 'Ativisha' meaning 'antidote to poison.'

Avocado

Increases kapha

Babool

Babool is the original Datuna: tender twigs chewed as toothsticks tighten bleeding gums. Bark decoction halts diarrhea and dysentery; the gum nourishes in weakness.

Bada Gokhru

Bada Gokhru (Pedalium murex) is the larger variety of Gokshura. It is a robust herb found in sandy regions of India. Its properties and actions are similar to Chhota Gokhru (Tribulus terrestris) but it is considered more potent as a diuretic and aphrodisiac. The mucilaginous extract of its fruit is especially used for urinary disorders and as a demulcent.

Bael

This fruit is a fantastic remedy for the digestive system. Sacred to Lord Shiva, it destroys weakness in the intestines. The dried immature part is used for diarrhoea while the mature, fresh fruit is more laxative.

Baheda

Vibhitaka (Baheda) is the second ingredient of Triphala. The fruit pulp is used medicinally. The seed oil is useful in skin diseases and hair growth. The seed itself is avoided internally as it may cause nausea.

Kshara)

Antacid substance that relieves acidity, gas and indigestion, helps circulation and skin health

Bakuchi

Rajadana is a large evergreen tree found in the forests of Western and Southern India. The ripe fruit is sweet and is eaten fresh. The flowers are fragrant. The tree yields good timber. The bark is astringent. The fruit is nutritive and aphrodisiac. Dose: As food. Verse: 29.

Bakula

Bakula/Maulshiri (Mimusops elengi) is a large evergreen tree with glossy dark green leaves. The small star-shaped flowers are extremely fragrant and bloom at night. Even dried flowers retain their fragrance. The bark is astringent and used for dental health - the bark decoction is used as a gargle for bleeding gums and loose teeth. The flower essence is used in heart disease and headache. The tree produces small edible fruits. The timber is very hard. It is a popular avenue tree. The bark contains saponins and tannins. Verse: 24-25.

Bakula

Bakula is the dental Rasayana of Ayurveda: bark decoction gargled tightens gums, steadies loose teeth, and stops Danta Roga bleeding. Astringent, cold, Kashaya rasa.

Bala

Bala is Ayurveda's strength-giver, a sweet, cooling Rasayana that calms Vata and rebuilds Ojas. Root decoction 1-2 tola for nerve debility; Bala Taila for stiff joints.

Vamsha

Bamboo's prize is Vamshalochana, the cool silica concretion inside the nodes. Pitta-Kapha pacifying, it calms Amlapitta, eases cough, and steadies Hridroga; dose 1-2 ratti.

Vamsalochana)

Bambusa arundinacea Willd. — siliceous exudate from bamboo used as cooling tonic. Synonyms: Tuga, Twakkshiri, Subha, Vamsalochana.

Bamboo Manna

Siliceous deposit inside bamboo internodes. White, crystalline, highly valued. Key ingredient in Sitopaladi Churna.

Banafsha

Decoction for cough, sneezing, flu, and otherrespiratory problems. Bile, lung disorders, rectumand uterus prolapse, stops oozing of pus, kidney and liver diseases; diaphoretic for pulmonary disorders, nauseating emetic, large doses emetic,mixed with almond oil and senna syrup excel-lent demulcent and aperient for children, petalsyrup infant coughs and chest tightness; flower infusion fevers; root is emetic in larger doses.

Violet

Banafsha (Viola/Ionidium) is described as a fragrant purple flower used in medicine. It is found in the Himalayan regions. The flowers and roots are used medicinally. It is particularly beneficial in respiratory conditions, fevers, and as a gentle laxative. The flower syrup is used in coughs and colds. It has cooling and soothing properties. Verse: 12.

Kadali

Kadali is more medicine than fruit: ripe banana cools Pitta and rebuilds tissue, unripe checks diarrhea, and stem juice 1-2 tola dissolves kidney stones.

Banda

This variety of Banda (Loranthus longiflorus) is found throughout India. It is a hemi-parasitic shrub growing on trees with thick bark. The plant has opposite, thick, leathery leaves with entire margins. Flowers are tubular, 2-4 inches long in clusters. It is used in fractures and bone disorders as a poultice. Its therapeutic uses include treating excessive menstrual bleeding and as a general tonic. Syn. Dendrophthoe falcata (Linn. f.) Ettingsh. (Loranthaceae). Dose: 3-6 grams.

Bandhujivaka

Pentapetes phoenicea Linn.

Banyan

Banyan bark is Ayurveda's cooling astringent for Raktapitta (bleeding) and Prameha (diabetes). Latex seals cracked heels; tender leaf buds calm diarrhea.

Barbara

Ocimum species — an Ocimum variant.

Barhal

Lakucha (Monkey Jack) is a medium to large tree related to Jackfruit. The tree grows up to 20 feet and the fruit is much smaller than Jackfruit. The fruit is sour-astringent. The bark contains tannin and is used in skin diseases. The heartwood extract is a potent anthelmintic, particularly against tapeworm. Dose: Bark decoction 1-2 tola. Verse: 6.

Barleria

Katsareya (Barleria prionitis) is a thorny shrub with yellow or orange flowers. It grows 2 to 4 feet tall. The leaves and roots are used medicinally. It is commonly found along roadsides and in hedges. The root is used in dental complaints - chewed as a toothbrush. The plant is spiny with opposite leaves. Different varieties exist: B. cristata (purple/blue flowers), B. strigosa (blue), and others. The flower is used in cough and Kapha disorders. It has 0.2-0.3% essential oil. Dose: 4-8 tola Kvatha; Churna 2-4 tola. Verse: 26.

Beeswax

Madhusiktha (Beeswax) is the wax produced by honeybees. It is used extensively in Ayurvedic pharmacy as a base for ointments, creams, and suppositories. It has wound-healing and skin-protective properties. It pacifies Vata and Pitta doshas. It is a key ingredient in many external formulations.

Benzoin

Lodhrasara (Benzoin) is a balsamic resin obtained from Styrax benzoin. Two types are described in the text. It is primarily used as an aromatic fumigant and in respiratory conditions. The resin has expectorant and antiseptic properties. It is used in cough preparations and as a preservative in pharmaceutical formulations. The resin is available in different grades based on purity and origin.

Beryl

A yellow, green or blue gem that promotes intelligence, power, prestige and enhances values of art and music

Betel Leaf

Paan (Betel Leaf) is described as a sacred and auspicious plant used extensively in Indian culture. The leaf is aromatic, pungent, and warming. It acts as an excellent mouth freshener, digestive stimulant, and Kapha-reducing agent. The text describes its use in chewing along with supari (betel nut), kattha, and chuna (lime) as a traditional practice that improves digestion, freshens breath, and strengthens gums. It has antiseptic properties. Its spike (Magadhi variety) is considered a separate type. Betel leaf is contraindicated in Raktapitta (bleeding disorders) and Pitta-predominant conditions when used excessively.

Betel Nut

Betel Nut (Puga) is Ayurveda's after-meal astringent: chewed with Paan, it kindles Agni, freshens breath, and the alkaloid Arecoline expels Krimi (intestinal worms).

Betel Nut

Additional properties and varieties of Supari (Betel Nut) described in the fruit section, including different processing methods and their effects on properties. Verses continued.

Bezoar Stone

Gorochana (Bezoar Stone) is a calculus obtained from the stomach or gallbladder of animals. Various types are described based on origin. It is considered a potent antidote and is used in critical conditions of poisoning and high fever.

Bhallataka

Bhallataka means ‘like a spear’, attesting to its ability to penetrate deeply into the tissues and rejuvenate the body. It benefits digestion, lung weakness and arthritis. It is a specific rejuvenating tonic for the reproductive system.

Bharangi

Important drug for respiratory disorders. The root is the part used. Found throughout India. Used in many anti-asthmatic formulations.

Bhringaraj

Bhringaraj is Keshya, the hair king: Bhringaraj Taila darkens greys and stops fall, with 3-6g powder or 10-20ml juice doubling as a Rasayana liver tonic.

Bhumyamalaki

This is a very bitter-tasting small shrub that literally means ‘the amalaki of the earth’ as this very low-lying shrub’s leaves resemble the pattern and shape of her somewhat grander celestial namesake. Amalaki (Emblica officinalis) is referred to in some books as Phyllanthus emblica. Bhumiamalaki is a wonderful liver remedy that is also effective for clearing gall and bladder stones.

Bhutare

The text discusses Bhutare/Yunare in the section on aromatic fumigation substances. Some scholars identify it with Angelica glauca while others consider it a distinct drug. It is used in dhupa (fumigation) preparations and for fever, digestive disorders, and as an anthelmintic.

Bhutrina

Sharanga is mentioned as a grass variety used as a diuretic and coolant.

Big Vetiver

Virana is a variety of vetiver grass closely related to Ushira. The text distinguishes it from regular Ushira (Vetiveria zizanioides). It has similar cooling and aromatic properties but is described as a distinct variety. The roots are used for cooling purposes and in the management of urinary disorders and burning sensations. It is commonly found in tropical and subtropical regions of India.

Birch

Bhurja (Birch) grows in the Himalayas at elevations of 7 to 12,000 feet above sea level. The bark peels off in thin papery layers and was historically used as writing material (Bhojpatra). The tree grows 50-70 feet tall. The bark contains Betulin, a triterpene, and tannins. The bark is astringent, anthelmintic and useful in skin diseases. The bark layers (Bhojpatra) are used for writing manuscripts. A related species B. alnoides Buch. is found at lower elevations up to 100 feet. The essential oil from the bark has antiseptic properties. Dose: Bark powder 4 to 10 tola; churna 1-2 masha. Verse: 26.

Bitter Cucumber

Kachvariya is a wild type of cucumber/gourd described for its bitter medicinal properties. It is used in digestive disorders and worm infestations. Verse mentioned.

Bitter Gourd

Bitter Gourd is the bitter Tikta vegetable that pulls Prameha (diabetes) and Pitta out of the blood. Karela juice 10-20ml at dawn lowers sugar, clears Kamala, kills worms.

Black Caraway

These little black seeds are marvellous for calming and strengthening digestion. It is an effective destagnator of the lungs, uterus, channels and mind.

Black Musli

Kali Musli (Curculigo orchioides) is valued as a Vrishya (aphrodisiac) and Rasayana drug. The rhizome is the main part used. It grows from underground rhizomes with elongated leaves. The plant produces yellow flowers close to the ground. The rhizome is black externally and white internally. It is traditionally used in sexual debility, general weakness, and as a rejuvenative tonic. The related species Asparagus adscendens (Safed Musli) and Chlorophytum arundinaceum (Safed Musli) are also used as Musli. The fresh rhizome is sticky and mucilaginous. Dose: powder 2-4 masha.

Black Pepper

Asthma, chronic indigestion, colon toxins,obesity, sinus congestion, fever, intermittent fever, The Ayurveda Encyclopedia 96cold extremities, colic, cooking spice, cholera, gastric ailments, gas, diarrhea, hemorrhoids,worms, sore throat; externally applied as a paste to boils, skin diseases.

Black Salt

Black salt (Kala Namak) with characteristic sulphurous smell. Used extensively in Indian cuisine (chaat masala). Excellent digestive aid. Contains iron compounds giving it the black color and distinctive taste.

Black Tea

Stimulant; depressant effect

Black Turpeth

The black variety of Nisoth/Turpeth used for drastic purgation. More potent than the white variety and requires careful dosing.

Bloodflower

Organic muscular system (especially heart and blood vessels), dysentery hemorrhoids, gon-orrhea.

Bloodstone

A quartz stone containing small red droplets; helps check hemorrhage and is the best blood purifier

Blue Water Lily

Utpala (Blue Water Lily) is the blue-flowered species of the water lily family. It is considered one of the most beautiful aquatic flowers. The flowers, rhizome and stems are used medicinally. It is cooling, improves complexion and is good for the heart. The blue flowers are used in eye disorders. It is referenced in many Ayurvedic formulations. Verse: 9-10.

Blumea

Kukurondha (Blumea lacera) is found throughout India at up to 2000 feet. It has a characteristic strong unpleasant smell (hence the name 'dog-sniffed'). The leaves are covered with soft hairs. The whole plant is used. It is employed in fevers, worm infestations, and as an insect repellent. The plant produces 3-4 small yellow flower heads. Dose: Swarasa. Verse: 204-206.

Borax

Tankana (Borax) is a naturally occurring mineral salt. It is widely used in Ayurveda as a Shodhana (purifying) agent for mercury and other metals. Medicinally, it is used in cough, bronchitis, and respiratory disorders as it is a powerful mucus-dissolving agent. It is also used as a flux in metallurgical processes. Purified Tankana is called Tankana Bhasma. Verses: 114-116.

Brahmi

Brahman is the Hindu name given to the universal consciousness and Brahma is the divinity responsible for all ‘creative’ forces in the world. Brahmi literally means the energy or shakti of Brahman (i.e. Sarasvati ). With brahmi deriving its name from these roots it has a lot to live up to. And it does! Its mind enhancing and nervous system soothing effects are legendary.

Brass

Riti (Brass) is an alloy of copper and zinc, classified as an Upadhatu. Its Bhasma is used in eye diseases and worm infestations. It has properties similar to Tamra (copper) but milder. Brass should not be used for cooking acidic or sour foods as it can become toxic. Verses: 47.

Bread Containing Yeast

Leavened bread

Brihati

Brihati (Solanum indicum), known as Badi Kateri in Hindi, is a member of the Laghu Panchamula. It is a prickly undershrub found commonly across India. The plant bears small round berries that turn yellow when ripe. The root, fruit, and whole plant are used medicinally. It is pungent and bitter with strong Kapha-reducing action, making it especially useful in respiratory conditions like cough, asthma, and hiccup. Together with Kantakari, it forms the pair known as 'Brihati-dvaya' or 'Kateri-dvaya'. The text notes its Solanum torvum Swartz as a related species.

Broccoli

Air element food. Rough vegetable, gas-producing.

Bronze/Bell Metal

Kansya (Bell metal/Bronze) is an alloy of copper and tin. It produces a resonant bell-like sound when struck. Kansya Bhasma is used in eye diseases, worm infestations, and as a Lekhana (reducing/scraping) agent in obesity. Food cooked in bronze vessels is considered beneficial for intellect. Verses: 48.

Burdock

A strong blood and lymphatic cleanser that clears congestion, reduces swelling and dispels toxins through skin or diuresis.

Butterfly Pea

Aparajita is the blue-flowered Medhya Rasayana, one of Charaka's four brain tonics. Root powder sharpens memory and intellect, cools Pitta, and steadies restless Vata.

Calcium/Chalk

Sudha (Calcium/Lime) is obtained from limestone, shells, and coral. It is used in preparations for worm infestations and digestive disorders. Externally it is used as a caustic agent. It is a component of various Kshara (alkaline) preparations. Verses: 121.

Camphor

Karpura is cold-potency Camphor: aromatic, Tikshna, dosed in tiny pinches as cardiac stimulant. Bhimseni grade clears Kasa, Shvasa, Netra Roga, and burning Pitta heat.

Camphor Basil

Shallaki (Indian Frankincense/Salai Guggul) is the gum-resin obtained from Boswellia serrata. It is one of the most important anti-inflammatory drugs in Ayurveda. The boswellic acids in the resin have been extensively studied for their anti-arthritic properties. It is primarily used for joint disorders, musculoskeletal pain, and inflammatory conditions. It is astringent and sweet with cooling potency.

Cane

Vetra/Bent (Calamus tenuis) is the cane palm, distinct from the willow Vetasa though sharing a similar name. It is a climbing palm with long flexible stems used to make walking sticks and furniture. The young shoots are edible. The plant has compound pinnate leaves with spiny midrib. Its height reaches 2 to 4 inches in diameter. Medicinally the bark and young shoots have astringent and cooling properties. It is used in Raktapitta (bleeding disorders) and as an antidote for certain poisons. The Flagellum (whip-like flexible portion) is used externally. Dose: bark powder 2-4 masha; shoot decoction 1-2 tola.

Cannabis

Cannabis (Bhanga/Vijaya) has been used in Ayurveda primarily as an analgesic, sedative, and anti-diarrheal. Three forms are used: Bhanga (leaves), Ganja (flowering tops), Charas (resin). In Ayurveda, purified preparations are used in small doses for specific conditions — pain, insomnia, diarrhea, appetite stimulation. Considered Madakara (intoxicant) and used with extreme caution.

Caper Bush

Karira (Caper Bush) is a thorny, much-branched shrub found in arid regions, particularly in Rajasthan and Gujarat. It is almost leafless with cylindrical green branches that perform photosynthesis. The unripe fruits are pickled and eaten. The root bark is used in cough, asthma and rheumatic conditions. The plant is considered heating and is useful in Vata and Kapha disorders. The tender branches are used for tooth cleaning. The fruit is laxative. The plant grows extensively in the Thar desert. Dose: Root bark decoction 1-2 tola; fruit as food. Verse: 33.

Ela)

Sweet, pungent taste; cooling virya; pungent vipak. Decreases vata and kapha, increases pitta. Good for cough, breathlessness, burning urination, hemorrhoids. Digestant.

Cashew

Earth element food.

Cassia Tora

Seeds and leaves are used for skin diseases.Mixed with lime juice, eases skin itch and erup-tions; ringworm (used externally). Leaf decoctions (1 part leaves : 10 parts water) given in two ouncedoses to children, removes fevers during teething.Leaves boiled in castor oil are applied to foul ul-cers and inflammations. As a poultice, leaves has-ten suppuration. Warmed they reduce gout, sciatica,and joint pains. Seeds are used as a substitute fortea and coffee.

Cassie Flower Tree

Tuganga is a variety of Babool with fragrant flowers. It is a large shrub or small tree found throughout India. Its properties are similar to Babbula. The bark is astringent and used in similar conditions. The fragrant flowers yield an essential oil used in perfumery. Verse: 17.

Cassytha filiformis

Cassytha filiformis is described as another parasitic vine similar to Amarbel (Cuscuta reflexa). It is a Parasitic climber found on coastal trees. The text notes it is used similarly for hair and anthelmintic purposes. Verse ref: page 448.

Castor Oil Plant

Castor oil is the king of purgatives, Eranda for stalled Apana Vayu. A teaspoon at bedtime softens dry stools; warmed and rubbed, it loosens sciatica and arthritic joints.

Cat's Tail

Gond Pater (Typha angustata) is the narrow-leaved cat's tail or bulrush found in marshy areas. It is briefly mentioned with limited medicinal description.

Cayenne Pepper

A strong circulatory and digestive stimulant and dispeller of internal and external cold, valued for enhancing Agni and the properties of other herbs.

Celery

Used in digestive and Vata disorders. Found in Himalayan regions.

Centipeda

Nakchikni (Centipeda orbicularis) is a small prostrate herb found in wet areas worldwide. It is known for causing sneezing when the juice is inhaled, hence used as a nasal errhine (Shirovirechana). The plant is very small with tiny flower heads. It is used in headache, sinusitis, and nasal congestion. The plant juice is applied as nasal drops. Dose: Swarasa 1-2 drops nasally. Verse: mentioned in context of nasal herbs.

Ceylon Oak

Koshala (Ceylon Oak) is a large deciduous tree found in the forests of Central and Southern India. The tree is important as it is the host tree for lac insects. The seed oil (Kusum oil) is used in skin diseases and as hair oil. The bark is astringent and used in skin diseases. The tree grows to 4-12 feet in diameter and can reach significant height. The leaves are used as fodder. The oil from seeds is edible and used medicinally. The bark decoction is used in itching, eczema and skin diseases. Dose: Oil externally; bark decoction 1-2 tola. Verses mentioned.

Chamomile

A popular therapeutic beverage tea good for all constitutions in moderate amounts, particularly beneficial for Pitta, relieving digestive and nervous complaints.

Sorrel

Changeri is wild Sorrel, sour and cooling. Boiled in lassi the leaves calm dysentery and hemorrhoids; juiced with honey, they ease thirst and prolapse.

Chaste Tree

Nirgundi is described in the text in the context of Priyangu discussion. The text mentions that some varieties of Priyangu were confused with Sindhuvara/Nirgundi. Vitex agnus-castus has palmately compound leaves and is found throughout India. It is one of the most important anti-inflammatory drugs in Ayurveda. The leaves, roots, and seeds are used. It is heating in potency and used for joint pain, headache, inflammatory swellings, and worm infestations. The leaves are applied as poultice for swelling and pain.

Chaturjata

Four-drug combination: Twak (cinnamon bark), Ela (cardamom), Patri (tejpatra), Nagakesara.

Chavya

A climbing shrub of tropical forests. Dried stem is used medicinally. Properties similar to Pippali but more pungent and drying. Part of Panchakola group.

Cherry

Priyala (Chironji) is a moderate-sized deciduous tree found in the dry forests of Central India. The seed kernel is the edible part, widely used as a dry fruit in Indian sweets and cooking. The kernel is sweet, nutritive, oily and aphrodisiac. The oil from kernels (Chironji oil) is used as a substitute for olive oil and almond oil. It is nourishing and strengthening. The fruit is eaten fresh and the kernel is expensive and valued. The bark is astringent. Chemical analysis shows the kernel contains 50-52% oil and significant protein. Dose: Kernel as food; oil externally. Verse: 28.

Chichda

Nichulka (Casearia tomentosa) is a tree whose bark and leaves are used medicinally. The bark is used in snake bite and scorpion sting as a vishaghna (anti-poison). It has bitter taste and hot potency. The leaves and bark are used externally on skin ailments and internally as an anthelmintic.

Chickpeas

Astringent taste. Cooling, drying, heavy.

Child Life Tree

Putranjeeva is a medium to large-sized evergreen tree found in central and eastern India. The name literally means 'life of the child' indicating its use in securing progeny and preventing miscarriage. The seeds and leaves are used medicinally. The seeds are strung into necklaces and worn by children as protective charms. The oil from seeds is used as an emollient. The leaves and bark are used in fever. The tree is considered auspicious and is planted near temples and houses. Dose: Seed powder 3-6 ratti. Verse: 21.

China Rose

Gudhal cools Pitta in hair roots and womb. Red flower paste with coconut oil checks Khalitya and graying; 3-6g churna eases Asrigdara and Raktapitta bleeding.

Chinese Cinnamon

Taja is Chinese cinnamon or cassia bark obtained from Cinnamomum cassia. It is thicker and coarser than true cinnamon (Dalchini). The bark is used as a spice and has similar but stronger flavor than Ceylon cinnamon. In Ayurveda, it is used for digestive complaints and as a flavoring agent in formulations.

Chirata

Found in Himalayas at 1200-2400m. Whole plant used. Widely used as bitter tonic and febrifuge. Often adulterated. Andrographis paniculata (Kalmegh) is the most common substitute.

Chitraka

Chitraka means the ‘spotted one’, perhaps referring to its namesake, the spotted leopard, who speedily catches its prey just as chitraka rapidly cures diseases. It is also known as agni, meaning ‘fire’, or jvala, meaning ‘flame’. It is a very hot-natured herb and should be used sparingly. It strongly increases the digestive fire.

Chocolate

Stimulant; also acts to depress the system

Chopchini

Introduced through Chinese/European trade. Popular for treating Phiranga Roga (syphilis). Dried tuberous root is used.

Chrysanthemum

Sevantı- derives from the word seva- meaning ‘service’ as it encourages humility and devotion. Its lightness balances the heavy intensity of pitta. Its sweet aroma awakens the heart and cools the agitation of an imbalanced pitta. It goes straight to the eyes and skin via the liver.

Cinnamon

Dalchini (Ceylon Cinnamon) is the inner bark of Cinnamomum zeylanicum. It is one of the finest spice barks, thin and delicate compared to cassia. The bark is aromatic with a pleasant sweet-spicy flavor. It is widely used in Ayurveda as a digestive, carminative, and flavoring agent. It has significant antimicrobial properties. The essential oil contains cinnamaldehyde as the principal component. It pacifies Vata and Kapha and is used in cough, cold, digestive disorders, and oral care. It also has aphrodisiac properties. Dalchini is used internally in typhoid and externally for skin conditions.

Citron

Bijapura (Citron/Bijora) is a large citrus fruit with thick rind. The tree is found in hilly regions of India. The fruit is large, oblong and fragrant. The rind is very thick and the juice is less than in lemons. The rind is candied and used in confections. The juice is sour and used medicinally as an appetizer and digestive. The essential oil from the rind is aromatic and used in perfumery. It is useful in Hridroga (heart disease), Aruchi (anorexia) and Gulma (abdominal tumors). The fruit is one of the sacred offerings in Hindu worship. Dose: Juice 1-2 tola. Verse: 51.

Civet Musk

Javadi Kasturi (Civet) is an aromatic animal secretion from the civet cat (Viverra zibetha, Fam. Viverridae). It is used as a substitute for true Kasturi (deer musk). The civet gland secretion is collected from captive animals. It shares some properties with deer musk but is considered inferior. Used primarily as an aromatic and in perfumery. Has aphrodisiac and cardiac stimulant properties. Dosage: 2-4 Ratti. Book reference: Karpuradi Varga, shloka 9.

Clearing Nut Tree

The text describes Hurhur (Gynandropsis pentaphylla) as a strong-smelling herb. Its leaves and seeds are used medicinally. It is pungent and hot in nature and is used in ear diseases and as a vermifuge. Verse: 265.

Clematis

Clematis gouriana is a climbing plant found in forest areas. The leaves and stems are used medicinally. It has sharp, pungent properties and is used for reducing swellings and pain relief. Applied externally as a paste. Verse ref: page 437.

Clove

Lavanga (Cloves) are the dried unopened flower buds of the clove tree. Despite being pungent, they have a cooling potency (Sheeta Virya), which makes them unique among spices. Cloves are one of the most versatile aromatic drugs in Ayurveda - they improve digestion, relieve nausea and vomiting, benefit the heart, and help in respiratory conditions. The essential oil is rich in Eugenol which has strong antiseptic and analgesic properties, making cloves particularly useful for dental pain. Mother cloves (fruits) are also used. Cloves pacify all three doshas.

Cluster Fig

Udumbara (Cluster Fig) is a moderate-sized spreading tree found throughout India in moist regions. The fruit receptacles are borne in large clusters on the main trunk and larger branches. The bark, latex, fruits and leaves are used medicinally. The unripe fruit is astringent and useful in diarrhea, dysentery and menorrhagia. The ripe fruit is sweet, cooling and laxative. The bark decoction is used in ulcers, wounds and skin diseases. The latex is applied externally on wounds. The tree is one of the Panchavalkala (five barks used together). Dose: Bark decoction 1-2 tola. Verses: 9-10.

Cockscomb

Celosia cristata (Cockscomb) is grown as an ornamental in gardens at up to 4000 feet. It has characteristic crest-shaped flower heads. The flowers contain Betanin pigment. The flowers are used in bleeding disorders. It is one of the three plants identified as Mayurshikha. Verse: 289.

Coconut

Coconut (Narikela) is the cooling Rasayana of the coast: tender water settles Mutrakrichhra and Daha, mature oil seals scalp and skin, kernel rebuilds Kshaya.

Coffee

Stimulating and ultimately depressing to the system; antidoted by cardamom

Coleus

Coleus is a small perennial plant that grows on the lower foothills of India, Sri Lanka and Nepal. It has received much scientific interest in recent years and is now renowned for its beneficial effect on the skin, heart, on blood pressure and glaucoma.

Colocynth

Colocynth is Ayurveda's heaviest purgative: Tikta and Ushna fruit pulp that breaks stubborn Vibandha, drains Kapha-Vata, and clears worms, ascites, and liver stagnation.

Comfrey

A powerful nutritive tonic and vulnerary that promotes tissue growth and healing, serving as a rejuvenative tonic to the lungs and mucous membranes.

Nala

Nala (Phragmites) is the common reed growing near water bodies. It is related to Nala mentioned in conjunction with Lobelia nicotianaefolia (Wild Lobelia/Wild Tobacco) and Campanulaceae family plants. The reed is used as a diuretic and coolant. Its root decoction is given in urinary disorders and burning sensation. Dose: decoction 1-2 tola.

Conch Shell

Shankha (Conch Shell) Bhasma is an important antacid preparation in Ayurveda. It is used in hyperacidity, indigestion, colic pain, and worm infestations. The Bhasma is prepared by incinerating conch shell after purification. It is one of the most commonly used marine-origin Bhasmas. Shankha Vati (tablets) are a popular preparation for digestive disorders. Verses: 141-143.

Copper

Tamra (Copper) is described as the third important metal. Two types are recognized: Nepalese copper and Mlechha copper. Good copper is reddish, soft, heavy, and lustrous. Tamra Bhasma is one of the most important preparations in Rasa Shastra. It is used in liver disorders, spleen enlargement, skin diseases, piles, anemia, and abdominal diseases. Improperly prepared copper Bhasma can cause severe vomiting, burning, and toxicity. It is an excellent Krimighna (anthelmintic) and Yakrituttejaka (liver stimulant). Verses: 19-22.

Copper Pyrites

Swarnamakshika (Copper Pyrites) is a golden-yellow mineral. Two types exist: Swarna Makshika (gold-colored, contains copper) and Rajata Makshika (silver-colored, contains iron). Swarna Makshika Bhasma is an important preparation used in anemia, eye diseases, skin diseases, and as a Rasayana. It is a natural source of iron and copper. The Bhasma is cooling and palatable. Verses: 123-128.

Coral

Pravala (Red Coral) is a marine organism (actually the skeleton of coral polyps) considered a gem in Ayurveda. Pravala Bhasma and Pravala Pishti are important preparations. They are used in cough, Pitta disorders, eye diseases, heart weakness, and as a calcium supplement. Coral is cooling and strengthening. The best coral is deep red, smooth, and heavy. Verses: 86-88.

Coriander

Main herb - digestive and skin/rash problems. Griping, flatulent colic, rheumatism, neuralgia, indigestion, vomiting, intestinal disorders, removes excess Kapha, eyewash, conjunctivitis, relieves internal heat and thirst, urogenital system(burning urethra, cystitis, infections, etc.), sorethroat, allergies, for all Pitta disorders, burning, The Ayurveda Encyclopedia 84juice for allergies, hay fever, and skin rashes (and externally as well); antidotes hot pungent foods,bleeding hemorrhoids. Externally eye disorders.

Corn

Grain/starch food item

Kapasa

Cotton (Kapasa) is the Ayurvedic galactagogue: root bark decoction, 1-2 tola, brings in breast milk; seed oil, sweet and Ushna, steadies Vata and ear disorders.

Cowrie Shell

Varatika (Cowrie Shell) Bhasma is used similar to Shankha Bhasma for digestive disorders and hyperacidity. It is milder in action compared to Shankha. Verses: 144-145.

Cranberries

Sour berry. Fire element food.

Crinum Lily

Sudarshana (Crinum latifolium) is found in all warm parts of India. It is a bulbous plant with large strap-shaped leaves. The bulb is the main medicinal part. It is applied as a poultice for inflammations and joint pains. The bulbs are 3 or more in number. The plant has large white flowers. Crinum asiaticum is also mentioned as a related species. Note: the Crinum genus (Amaryllidaceae) was discussed in the text. Verse: 270.

Cubeb Pepper

Cubeb Pepper (Kababchini) is Katu and Ushna, the tailed pepper that clears damp lungs, freshens breath, and stokes Agni. Dose 1-3g for cough, gas, and Krimi.

Cucumber

Kheera (Cucumber) is a common vegetable-fruit widely cultivated across India. It is cooling, thirst-quenching and diuretic. The fruit is mainly water and is excellent for summer. It is used in salads and as a cooling agent. The seeds are diuretic and cooling. Cucumber is beneficial in Pitta disorders, burning micturition and thirst. It is a low-calorie food. Dose: As food. Verse: 12.

Cumin

This small shrubby annual thrives in dry conditions. It counteracts dampness and excessively wet conditions in the body. Its Sanskrit name literally means ‘promoting digestion’ and it is a superb addition to any formula when there is a compromised digestive system.

Curd

Fermented dairy product

Cuttlefish Bone

Internal shell of cuttlefish. Used externally as Anjana for eye diseases and skin care.

Damanaka

This common roadside herb is very warming and has an affinity for the blood and the female reproductive system. Damanaka literally means ‘subduing’ as it tames disease.

Dandelion

Detoxifying herb for Pitta and Ama conditions, specific for breast and liver problems.

Danti

Danti (Baliospermum montanum) is a small shrub found mainly in hilly regions. The root and seeds are the main medicinal parts. It is a powerful purgative herb, described as sharp (Tikshna) in quality and hot (Ushna) in potency. It acts primarily through purgation (Virechana). The text describes it as useful in Kapha and Pitta disorders, abdominal diseases, skin conditions (Kushtha), worm infestations, splenic enlargement (Pliha), and swellings (Shotha). It is one of the chief purgative herbs mentioned in Ayurveda. The doses mentioned are 1-5 grains for seeds and various preparations for the root. Verse refs: pages 400-401.

Daruharidra

Daruharidra means ‘tree turmeric’ after its yellow-coloured roots and trunk visible after the bark is peeled from this thorny bush. It is a remarkable remedy for regulating the liver and clearing high pitta from the system.

Dasapushpa

Kerala ten-flower combination: Vishnukrantha, Durva, Bhringaraja, Sakralatha, Varahi, Bhadrika, Uttamakanyaka (Sahadevi), Sasakarni, Lakshmana, Samanga (Lajjalu).

Dates

Sweet fruit used for heat exhaustion

Datura

Dhatura is Visha, sacred poison wielded only after Shodhana. Leaves smoked for asthma, seed oil rubbed on joint pain, swelling, and stubborn skin.

Devadaru

Devadaru is the divine wood: Himalayan Cedar heartwood and oil that move stuck Kapha-Vata. Hot, bitter-pungent, it eases joint pain, fever, and skin disease.

Dhamasa

Dhamasa (Fagonia arabica) is described alongside Jawaasa as another variety of Duraalbhaa. It is a small, thorny, prickly herb found in dry and arid regions. The text describes its taste as bitter and astringent, qualities as light and dry, and potency as cold. It is useful in fevers, thirst, burning sensations, and blood-related disorders. The plant grows close to the ground with small leaves and thorns on each node. Doses: 1-2 tola decoction; powder 4-9 ratti; 1-8 masha. Verse refs: page 412.

Dhataki

Flowers are the main part used. Essential ingredient in Asava-Arishta preparations (fermented medicines) where flowers act as a fermenting agent. Red flowers used in Raktapitta and bleeding disorders.

Dhataki

Dhataki (Woodfordia fruticosa) is a deciduous shrub with profuse red flowers. The flowers are extensively used in Ayurvedic Asava and Arishta preparations as a fermenting agent. The flowers are rich in tannins and have strong astringent properties. They are used in diarrhea, dysentery, and bleeding disorders. The plant is an essential ingredient in many fermented Ayurvedic medicines. The flowers are small, tubular, and brilliant red. The shrub grows to 10-15 feet height. Verse: 19-21.

Diamond

Vajra (Diamond) is considered the king of gems. Diamond Bhasma is extremely powerful and used in very small doses. It is Rasayana and is indicated in tuberculosis, severe debility, chronic diseases, and as a supreme rejuvenative. The text describes various types of diamonds based on color — white, yellowish, reddish, and blackish. Good quality diamond is clear, lustrous, and free from flaws. Diamond must be incinerated properly using Vajra Musa (special crucible). Improperly prepared diamond Bhasma can be extremely dangerous. Verses: 69-73.

Dikamali

Small tree in dry deciduous forests. The gum-resin (Dikamali gum) is yellow colored. Used externally and internally.

Dodder

Dodder (Amarvela) is the rootless orange vine Ayurveda calls Akashbel, sky-grown. Bitter, cold, Pitta-cooling: 10-20ml juice clears Krimi, scalp, and skin.

Dravanti

Dravanti is described as a more drastic purgative than even Danti. Its exact botanical identity is debated between Jatropha glandulifera and Croton tiglium. The seeds or root are used for powerful purgation. It should be used with extreme caution and only in strong patients. The text warns against its casual use. Dose: very small - 1 ratti.

Dronapushpi

Dronapushpi (Leucas cephalotes) is an erect annual herb found commonly across India. Its name comes from the Drona-shaped (cup-shaped) inflorescence. The plant has strong aromatic smell. It is used in fevers, coughs, worm infestations, and inflammatory conditions. The juice of leaves is used as nasal drops for headache. It is widely used in folk medicine across India. The plant grows 1-3 feet tall with square stems and opposite leaves. Dose: Swarasa 2-4 tola. Verse: 271-274.

Sahjan

Sahjan, the Drumstick Tree, is Shigru: hot, pungent, sharp. Leaves and pods cut Kapha-Vata stagnation, drain Shotha, ease Hridroga, and clear Krimi from the gut.

Dry Fruits

Creates dryness; may aggravate vata

Dudhi

Euphorbia hypericifolia is found in India at up to 4500 feet. It is a taller plant among Euphorbia species (0.010 tola proportion). Used similarly to other Euphorbia species for diarrhea and dysentery. Verse: 296.

Durva Grass

Durva is Ayurveda's bleeding-stopper: cooling, astringent Bermuda grass juice (1-2 tola) that calms Pitta, halts nosebleeds, heavy menses, and seals fresh wounds.

Dwarf Cherry

The text mentions Dwarf Cherry (Prunus cerasus) in the Karpuradi Varga context. The cherry tree produces small sour fruits. It is found in temperate regions. The bark and fruit are medicinally used. The tree has 2-3 inch leaves and pink-white flowers appearing before leaves. The bark exudes a gum. The fruits are sour-astringent. It is cooling and used as an absorbent.

Echinacea

Powerful detoxifying agent and natural herbal antibiotic that cleanses blood and lymph systems.

Egg

Animal protein food item

Eggplant

Air element food. Nightshade.

Elephant Creeper

Munjatka is briefly mentioned as a strengthening herb.

Elephant Foot Yam

Gojiha (Elephantopus scaber) is found in India in hilly regions at 4-12 feet elevation. The leaves are large, tongue-shaped, and rough. The root and leaves are used medicinally. It is an important herb for respiratory disorders including cough and asthma. The plant has basal rosette of leaves. The name Gojiha means 'cow's tongue' referring to the shape of the leaves. Antibiotic activity has been reported. Dose: Churna 2-4 tola. Verse: 279-280.

Elephant Foot Yam (Surana

Amorphophallus campanulatus Blume — tuber used for hemorrhoids and digestive disorders.

Elephant Grass

Paraska (Typha elephantina) is the elephant grass or broad-leaved cattail found in marshy areas. It grows abundantly near ponds and wetlands. The pollen and roots are used. The pollen has hemostatic properties. The roots are used as a diuretic. The plant grows 5-6 feet tall in marshy areas. The leaves are used for weaving mats. Dose: root decoction 2-4 tola.

Emerald

Marakata (Emerald) is a green precious gemstone. Its Bhasma is used in poisoning, heart diseases, and as a rejuvenative. It has cooling properties and is beneficial in Pitta disorders. Good emeralds are deep green, transparent, and lustrous. Verses: 77-78.

Ephedra

Ephedra is a dry, stalky plant that favours dry, barren land, and is specific for cold, wet, damp lung and circulatory conditions. It is invaluable for acute asthma and allergic respiratory attacks with kapha and cold symptoms. Somalata means the ‘soma creeper’ referring to ‘soma’, the divine plant that induced transcendental states. Although Ephedra spp. have been associated with soma this is not confirmed and ephedra is not a creeper.

Eucalyptus

Aromatic herb used for steam inhalation and oil application

False Ashoka

Polyalthia longifolia is commonly but incorrectly used as 'Ashoka'. It is a tall columnar tree with drooping branches and wavy-edged leaves. Unlike the true Ashoka (Saraca indica), this tree does not have the same uterine tonic properties. The tree is widely planted as an ornamental along roads. The leaves are long and undulating. The flowers are small, green, and inconspicuous. It is important to distinguish this from Saraca indica for medicinal purposes. Verse: 25 (commentary note).

Fennel

Its name shatapushpa means ‘one hundred flowers’. Its other name Madhurika- means ‘the sweet one’. This is another member of the Umbelliferae family that aromatically warms digestion. Like its flower head it spreads and moves outwards, thus preventing congestion and stagnation in the centre.

Fenugreek

Fenugreek is a very warming seed that benefits kapha and va-ta. It is used to treat constipation, high cholesterol, diabetes and obesity. Its smell is very pungent, and it is a nourishing seed.

Fever Nut

Fever Nut, Kantakaranja, is Ayurveda's antipyretic for Vishama Jvara, the intermittent fevers. Bitter seed kernel, 1-3 ratti, breaks the cycle; bark decoction follows.

Ficus

Ficus heterophylla is briefly mentioned in the text. It is a variety of fig tree with variable leaf shapes. The bark and latex are used medicinally. It has astringent and anti-diarrheal properties. Verse ref: page 432.

Fig

Sweet taste, cooling virya, sweet vipak. Heavy to digest. Calms vata and pitta, promotes kapha. Good source of iron, builds blood.

Fish

Animal protein food item

Flaxseed

Good tonic for Vata, for the colon and the lungs, strengthening lung tissue and promoting healing.

Sahadevi

Sahadevi (Vernonia cinerea) is an erect herb commonly found in fields and waste lands. It has purple flower heads. The entire plant is used medicinally. It is bitter in taste and pungent in post-digestive effect. It is useful in fevers, skin diseases, and worm infestations. The juice of the plant is used as an anthelmintic. It is sometimes confused with Nagabala species but belongs to a completely different botanical family (Compositae). Dose: juice 1-2 tola; powder 2-4 masha.

Makhana

Makhana (Fox Nut/Gorgon Nut) is an aquatic plant found in ponds and lakes, particularly in Bihar and Eastern India. The puffed seeds (Makhana) are a popular dry fruit and fasting food. They are sweet, nutritive, aphrodisiac and easy to digest when roasted. Makhana is widely used in Indian sweets and curry preparations. It is strengthening and beneficial in Prameha (diabetes), weakness, and seminal debility. The puffed nuts are light and digestible. They are considered one of the best Vrishya (aphrodisiac) foods. Rich in protein, starch and minerals. Dose: As food; powder 1-2 tola. Verse: 32.

Ketaki

Ketaki (Fragrant Screw Pine) is mentioned in the context of aromatic substances. The male flowers are highly fragrant and yield the famous Kewda water and Kewda attar used in perfumery and flavoring. The plant is found throughout coastal India. The leaves are long and spiny. The flower is used for its aromatic and cooling properties. It is considered an aphrodisiac, heart tonic, and complexion enhancer. The aromatic water distilled from the flowers is widely used in traditional Indian desserts and beverages.

Frankincense

Kunduru (Frankincense/Indian Olibanum) is the gum-resin of Boswellia species. It is a fragrant resin used both as incense and medicine. The drug has notable anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties attributed to its boswellic acid content. It is used in joint disorders, wound healing, and as a fumigant. The gum-resin is yellowish and aromatic with bitter-sweet taste.

Gajapippali

Large climbing plant of Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas. Dried fruit spikes (5-10 cm) resemble long pepper but larger. Used as substitute for Pippali.

Galangal

Sugandha Vacha (Galangal/Kaempferia galanga) is mentioned in the text as a fragrant rhizome sometimes confused with or substituted for Kapur Kachri (Hedychium spicatum). The rhizome is small, aromatic, and camphoraceous. It is used as a digestive, expectorant, and for Vata disorders. The plant is low-growing with round leaves close to the ground and white flowers with purple markings. It is cultivated in southern India and Southeast Asia.

Gambhari

Gambhari (Gmelina arborea) is one of the Dashamula (Brihat Panchamula) group of drugs. It is a large deciduous tree found throughout India. The fruit is sweet and sour, described as Vrishya (aphrodisiac) and Rasayana (rejuvenative). The root is the main medicinal part used in Dashamula combinations. The tree bark, root, flowers, and fruits all have therapeutic applications. Gambhari fruit is specifically noted for its cooling effect despite Ushna Virya, and it alleviates burning sensation (Daha) and excessive thirst (Trishna). It is among the key ingredients of Dashamularishta and Chyawanprash.

Gamboge Tree

Tamala is the Gamboge tree, a drastic purgative dosed in mere grains: 1-2 grain of resin clears Krimi (worms), Kushtha skin disease, and dropsy. Bitter, hot, Kapha-cutting.

Gandhaprasarini

Gandhaprasarini (Paederia foetida) is a climbing vine known for its strong fetid smell when crushed. The plant grows up to 4000 feet elevation. The leaves and stems are the main medicinal parts. It is described as bitter, pungent, light, unctuous, and hot in potency. It is primarily useful in Vata disorders - joint pain, rheumatism, swellings, and as an analgesic. It promotes healing of tissues (Sandhaniya). Used in various external applications for pain relief. The foetid odor is characteristic. Verse refs: pages 424-425.

Garcinia Cambogia

Herb shown in modern research to be one of the best remedies for weight reduction, aiding fat metabolism and lowering appetite.

Garden Cress

Seeds (Halim) commonly given to lactating mothers to promote milk production. Also used as nutritive tonic.

Garden Nightshade

Heart disease (with leg and foot swelling),skin diseases, fruit for edema hemorrhoids, gon-orrhea, inflammatory swellings, enlarged spleen and liver, fevers, promotes perspiration, cough. External painful, swollen testicles; poultice forrheumatic and gouty joints.

Garlic

Garlic is Rasonam, the hot pungent Rasayana that breaks Kapha and steadies Vata. Two cloves in warm milk soften arteries, open lungs, and clear cholesterol.

Garnet

A silicate material in various colors; red, yellow and brown varieties have heating effect, white and green are cooling

Giant Swallowort

Promotes secretion (especially of bile), intestinal muscle sedative, heart (used like digitalis),phlegm purge, depilatory, parasitic infection, reduces pain, difficult/painful urination, skin diseases, abdominal disorders, dysentery, syphilis,fevers with enlarged liver and cough; intermittentfevers, hemorrhoids, edema. Leaves are for paraly-sis, anesthesia, and toxic asthma. Flowers digestive tonic and stomachic, small doses stimulatecapillaries, skin (including elephantiasis, leprosy),asthma. Milky juice violent purgative, G.I. irri-tant.

Ginger

Zingiber officinale Roscoe. Synonyms: Sunthi, Bheshaja vara, Mahoushadha, Chukku, Oushadha, Sringavera, Viswabheshaja, Nagara.

Ginger, Dry

Pungent taste; heating virya; pungent vipak. Calms vata and kapha but may stimulate pitta more than fresh ginger. Kindles digestive fire.

Gisekia

Gisekia (Pashanabhedi variety) is mentioned toward the end of the Karpuradi Varga. The plant is found in dry regions of India. It is a small herb with fleshy leaves. The plant contains oxalic acid and is used in urinary disorders as a lithotriptic (stone-breaking agent). It has bitter and astringent taste with cooling potency.

Glossocardia

Pusa (Glossocardia linearifolia) is a small herb from the Composite family described as another regional variety of Parpata. It grows in southern and western India, reaching about 10 inches in height. The small flower heads (Capitulum) resemble small sunflowers. It has an Involucre of small bracts around the flower head. The plant is used as a febrifuge and coolant. Its bitter taste and cooling nature make it suitable for Pitta-dominant conditions.

Gokshura

Gokshura is the urinary tract's Rasayana: 3-6g powder or decoction flushes Mutrakrichchhra, dissolves Ashmari stones, and works as a Vrishya for vigor and seed.

Gold

Gold becomes medicine as Bhasma, Ayurveda's deepest Rasayana. Purified and incinerated, it lifts Ojas, sharpens Buddhi, and steadies Hridroga and Apasmara.

Gold Thread

Golden Champa

Champaka (Michelia champaca) is a tall, handsome tree found in tropical forests. It can grow 20 feet tall. The golden-yellow flowers are extremely fragrant and are prized in Indian culture. The flowers are used in worship, garlands, and medicine. The bark and flowers are used as a febrifuge. The tree has smooth, oval leaves. The flowers are 2 to 6 in number at leaf axils. Champaka oil is used in perfumery. The wood is also valued. The flowers are rich in essential oils. The tree grows at 4-20 feet in hilly areas. Dose: Flower paste; Churna 3-6 grams. Verse: 14-15.

Goldenseal

Herbal antibiotic and antiseptic that detoxifies the gastrointestinal tract and circulatory system, regulating liver and spleen function.

Gorakhmundi

Gorakhmundi is the bitter blood-purifier for stubborn Kushtha. Sphaeranthus indicus, hot and pungent, clears Krimi, cools chronic skin eruptions; 1-2 tola juice daily.

Gorocana

Gorocana is a biliary concretion found in the gall bladder of cattle. It is golden-yellow in color and has been highly valued in Ayurveda since ancient times. The text describes it as a cooling substance that is bitter in taste. It is considered auspicious and is used in many religious and ceremonial purposes as well. Medicinally, it is used as an antidote to poisons, in fevers, and for improving complexion. It is an ingredient in many classical formulations for pediatric disorders. The genuine article is very rare and expensive. It alleviates Pitta and Kapha doshas.

Gotu Kola

Best rejuvenative herb for brain cells and nerves, intelligence. Adrenal purifier, AIDS, blood purifier, eczema, epilepsy, insanity, hypochondria, fevers (intermittent), hair loss, immune systemboost (cleansing and nourishing), liver, longevity, memory, nervous disorders, psoriasis, senility, skinconditions (chronic and obstinate), venereal dis-eases, tetanus, convulsions, rheumatism, elephan-tiasis, bowel disorders. Spiritual Uses: The most sattwic herb

Governor's Plum

Vikankatha (Governor's Plum) is a thorny tree found in the forests of India. The fruit is small, sour and eaten fresh or dried. It is appetizing and used in digestive disorders. The bark is astringent. Dose: As food. Verse: 30.

Grape Juice

Cooling drink for heat exhaustion

Grapes

Draksha is the king of fruits in Ayurveda, sweet, cooling, mildly laxative. Munakka 5-10 pieces softens stools, eases Raktapitta bleeding, and calms dry Kasa.

Greater Cardamom

Sthula Ela (Greater Cardamom) is the dried capsular fruit of Amomum subulatum, primarily cultivated in Nepal and sub-Himalayan regions. The fruits are larger than lesser cardamom and have a smoky flavor. They are used as a spice and medicine, particularly for oral hygiene, respiratory complaints, and urinary disorders. The drug is cooling in potency despite being pungent.

Green Beans

Astringent taste. Cooling, drying, heavy.

Green Cardamom

Sukshma Ela (Lesser Cardamom) is one of the most prized spices and is called the 'Queen of Spices.' The dried capsular fruit of Elettaria cardamomum is used. It is aromatic, pleasant in taste, and cooling. It is an excellent mouth freshener, digestive, and cardiac tonic. It relieves nausea, vomiting, and excessive thirst. It is widely used in Ayurvedic formulations and cooking. The seeds contain volatile oil rich in Cineol.

Green Grapes

Sour taste.

Green Jade

Sangeyashab (Green Jade) is a green semi-precious stone used as Bhasma in heart diseases and as an anti-poison remedy. It is cooling in nature. Verses: 122.

Green Mango

Sour, astringent, cooling virya, pungent vipak. Disturbs all three doshas when raw. Used for chutney and pickles; when prepared this way, helps digestion.

Green Salad

Produces gas

Guava

Guava is Amritaphala, sweet-astringent and cooling: ripe fruit eats fresh, unripe fruit and leaf decoction (1-2 tola) settle diarrhea and dysentery on contact.

Gudakeriri

Brief mention of a Euphorbia variety with properties similar to Snuhi but milder in action.

Gudmar

Gudmar means sugar destroyer: chew a leaf and sweetness vanishes for an hour. Gymnemic acid blocks sweet receptors; 3-6g leaf powder daily for Madhumeha (diabetes).

Guduchi

Guduchi is Amrita, Ayurveda's nectar of immortality. Bitter stem breaks Jwara fevers, Satva cools Pitta burning, Rasayana and Medhya rebuild immunity and memory.

Guggulu

Bola (Myrrh/Bdellium) is an oleo-gum resin from Commiphora myrrha. It is used in wound healing, mouth disorders, skin diseases, and pain management. It has antiseptic and anti-inflammatory properties. Used both internally and externally. Verses: 130.

Guggulu Patra

The text mentions the use of Guggulu leaves in the context of the Karpuradi Varga. While Guggulu resin is described earlier in detail, the leaves are noted here for their aromatic and medicinal properties.

Gunja

Gunja's seeds are toxic, its roots taste like liquorice. Ayurveda uses seed paste externally for Indralupta (alopecia), leaf juice for cough, root as a sweetener.

Hadjod

Hadjod is Asthisanghara, Ayurveda's bone-setter. Stems rich in calcium and ketosteroids knit fractures fast; juice 10-20ml or powder 3-6g, paste applied on the break.

Hansapadi

Hansapadi (Adiantum lunulatum) is a delicate fern, commonly called Maidenhair Fern. The fronds are the medicinal part. The plant grows in shady, moist areas on rocks and walls. It is described as bitter, astringent, light, dry, and cold in potency. It is primarily used for cough (Kasa), asthma (Shvasa), fever (Jvara), and respiratory conditions. The delicate fan-shaped fronds have a water-repellent surface. Verse refs: page 444.

Hapusha

Two types — Hapusha and Matsyandika. Both aromatic. Used in digestive and urinary disorders.

Harfarevdi

Star Gooseberry is a small tree found in many parts of India. The fruit is small, sour and acidic, eaten fresh or pickled. It has properties similar to Amalaki (Amla) but is less potent. The bark and roots have astringent properties. The fruit ripens to white-yellow and is clustered along branches. Dose: As food. Verse: 26.

Haritaki

Haritaki is the king of herbs in Ayurveda, Rasayana for the colon, brain, and nerves. Half a teaspoon at night softens stools, kindles Agni, sharpens memory.

Hawthorn Berry

Sour-tasting circulatory stimulant with special action on the heart, strengthening the heart muscle and promoting longevity.

Helicteres isora

Helicteres isora or Marorphali is a small tree with characteristic spirally twisted fruits. The twisted pod shape is very distinctive. The fruits, bark, and root are used medicinally. It is described as astringent, bitter, light, dry, and cold in potency. It is primarily used as an anti-diarrheal (Grahi) and for intestinal worms. Also useful in colic and abdominal disorders. Verse ref: page 437.

Hemp Seed

The seeds of this infamous plant make a superb demulcent laxative. They also have a perfect balance of omega-3, -6 and -9 essential fatty acids, pointing to its use as an anti-inflammatory, nervous restorative, and cardiac tonic. Vijayameans ‘victorious’ as it is victorious over so many diseases.

Parasikayavani)

Hyoscyamus niger Linn. — Khurasani Ajwain; narcotic seed used cautiously for pain and spasm.

Henna (Madayanti

Lawsonia inermis Linn.

Hibiscus

Sthala Padma (Hibiscus mutabilis) is a land lotus - a hibiscus variety with flowers that change color from white in the morning to pink and then deep red by evening. It is called 'Confederate Rose'. The flowers are large, double-petaled and beautiful. The plant has broad lobed leaves. It grows as a large shrub or small tree. The flowers are used in Pitta disorders and bleeding conditions. Dose: 5-4 inches flowers; Churna 1-2 tola. Verse: 12-13.

Hijjal

Samudraphala (Barringtonia acutangula) is a tree found near water bodies. The fruit and bark are the main parts used. The bark contains saponin. It has bitter and astringent taste with cold potency. The bark is used in skin diseases and as an anthelmintic. The crushed fruit is used as fish poison (Matsyagandhi). It is a medium-sized tree growing near rivers and lakes. The bark is used in decoction form. Dose: bark decoction 1-2 tola.

Taxus wallichiana)

Taxus baccata Linn. — Himalayan conifer used in classical Ayurveda.

Hingota

Hingota (Desert Date) is a thorny tree found in dry and arid regions of India. The tree grows up to 20 feet or more. The fruit and seed oil are the main medicinal parts. The oil from seeds is purgative and anthelmintic. The fruit pulp is bitter and used in skin diseases and worm infestations. The bark is used as a fish poison in some regions. The seed oil contains saponins and diosgenin. It is used externally in skin diseases and internally as a purgative. Dose: Oil 5-10 drops; fruit decoction 1-2 tola. Verse: 22.

Hingu

One of the most important kitchen spices and medicines. Especially used in Vata disorders and digestive problems. Dissolved in warm oil or ghee. Two types: Hingu (stronger) and Hingupatri (milder).

Hingula

Hingula (Cinnabar) is the natural ore of mercury — a red mineral composed of mercuric sulphide. It is an important source of mercury for Rasa Shastra preparations. Hingula Bhasma is used in skin diseases, worm infestations, and wounds. It is also the source from which mercury is extracted through sublimation. Four types are described based on origin and quality. It must be properly purified before use. Verses: 103-106.

Hiptage

Madhavi Lata (Hiptage madablota) is a large woody climber with fragrant white-pink flowers with yellow center. The flowers are winged (having 3 wing-like extensions on the fruit). The vine can climb to 4-5 tola in length. It blooms profusely with clusters of fragrant flowers. The bark and flowers are used medicinally. It is found across India. The seeds have characteristic wing-like appendages for wind dispersal. Used in skin diseases and bleeding disorders. Dose: 4-5 drops; wings of the fruit are also used. Verse: 19.

Ankota

Ankota is Ayurveda's emetic-purgative tree: 1-2 grains of root bark move bile, larger doses drive Vamana, clearing Ama, Krimi, and Shotha. Hot, bitter, settles Vata.

Horse Gram (Kulattha

Dolichos biflorus Linn. — for ashmari and medas

Horsetail

Effective diuretic and blood cleanser with strong stone-removing action for kidney, bladder, and gallbladder stones.

Hribera

Coleus vettiveroides K.C Jacob — cooling diuretic; synonyms Ambhoda, Ambu, Balaka, Udichya

Tuvaraka)

Hydnocarpus laurifolia (Dennst) Sleumer — chaulmoogra oil source, classical treatment for leprosy and skin disease.

Lagenaria siceraria)

Lagenaria vulgaris Ser.

Tejpatra

Tejpat is the kitchen-shelf Kapha cutter: pungent, bitter, hot leaves of Cinnamomum tamala that kindle Agni, ease Shvasa, and steady stalled digestion at 1-3g daily.

Karanj

Karanj is the skin-disease tree, Pongamia oil that scours Kushtha, scabies, and ringworm. Bitter, pungent, hot; 5-10 drops external for Krimi, fungal feet, stubborn itch.

Chiribel

Chirbilva (Holoptelea integrifolia) is a large deciduous tree found in tropical and subtropical forests. Its bark, leaves, and seeds are used medicinally. The bark paste is applied externally on skin diseases and inflammatory swellings. Internally the bark decoction is used as an anthelmintic. The leaves are used in ringworm and other skin parasitic conditions. It has properties similar to Karanj and is often used as a substitute. The tree bark contains bitter principles that make it useful in skin ailments and digestive disorders.

Dankari

Dankari encompasses references to both Clerodendrum phlomidis and Physalis minima. The text mentions that some scholars refer to 'Pankari' as the primary name. Physalis alkekengi (Physalis minima) is the more commonly identified species. It is a small herbaceous plant with bladder-like calyces covering the fruit. The fruits and leaves are used in digestive disorders and inflammatory conditions. Dose: 2-4 masha.

Indian Hog Plum

Amrataka (Indian Hog Plum) is a large deciduous tree growing in the forests of Eastern India. The fruit is sour-sweet and somewhat similar to mango but smaller. It is eaten raw and used in pickles and chutneys. The fruit is laxative and appetizing. The bark is astringent. The fruit increases Pitta but is good for Vata and Kapha. It is used in various culinary preparations. Dose: Fruit as food. Verses: 2.

Ber

Shleshmataka (Lasoda/Gunda) is a moderate-sized deciduous tree found throughout India. The fruit is mucilaginous and sticky when ripe. The ripe fruit is eaten and used as a vegetable (pickled as Gunda). The bark is used in dyeing. The fruit is demulcent and used in cough and chest diseases. The mucilage from the fruit is used as a glue. The fruit increases Kapha due to its slimy nature. The bark decoction is used in fevers. Dose: As food; bark decoction 1-2 tola. Verse: 40.

Amaltas

The golden yellow flowers of Amaltas (Cassia fistula) hang in beautiful pendulous racemes. The flowers have mild laxative properties. They are cooling and pacify Pitta. The flower decoction is used as a gentle purgative for children. The tree is deciduous and flowers spectacularly in April-June. Referenced in Pushpa Varga among tree flowers.

Indian Mallow

Atibala (Abutilon indicum) is considered superior in strength-giving properties compared to Bala, hence the name 'Ati-bala' (exceeding Bala). It is a shrubby plant growing 4-5 feet in height. The leaves are heart-shaped and velvety. The flowers are yellow. The seeds are kidney-shaped. Roots, leaves, and seeds are used medicinally. It is heavier in quality than Bala and more nourishing. Used in weakness, debility, urinary disorders, and as a galactagogue. The mucilaginous nature makes it useful as a demulcent in urinary burning and dysuria. Dose: decoction 4 tola; seed powder 2-4 masha. Duration: taken for 4-5 days.

Brihati

Asthma, dry and spasmodic cough; difficultchildbirth, chronic fevers, chest pains, colic, gas,worms, scorpion stings, difficult urination, edema, enlarged and spleen; catarrh. Burning seed smoke is used for toothache (it is usually used along withother herbs). The root is one of the da hmul ingredients, and is usually mixed with other roots. It isgood for edema, cough, mucus. Decoctions help dysuria.

Indian Persimmon

Tinduka (Gaub Persimmon/Tendu) is a moderate-sized tree found in the forests of Central and Southern India. The leaves are commercially important as they are used for making Bidi (Indian cigarettes). The ripe fruit is sweet-astringent and edible. The unripe fruit is very astringent and used in diarrhea. The bark is astringent and used in dysentery. The fruit juice is used as a natural fixative. The tree is an important source of non-timber forest produce. The leaves contain tannins. Dose: Fruit as food; bark decoction 1-2 tola. Verse: 18.

Indian Squill

Wild onion found throughout India. Contains cardiac glycosides similar to Digitalis. Used as cardiac stimulant and diuretic. The bulb is used. Important drug but requires careful dosing due to cardiac glycoside content.

Indian Valerian

Tagara is Ayurveda's nervine sedative for restless Vata: dried rhizome, 1-3g at bedtime, calms anxiety (Chittodvega), eases epilepsy, and quiets a racing mind.

Indigo

Indigo (Neeli) is the Keshya for hair: bitter, hot, Kapha-Vata pacifying. Leaf paste darkens and strengthens roots; internally it clears Kushtha and worms.

Irish Moss

Nutritive seaweed tonic and restorative for deficient conditions, convalescence, old age, and hormonal insufficiency.

Iron

Loha (Iron) is the most commonly used metal in Ayurvedic medicine. Three types are described: Munda, Tikshna, and Kanta Loha. Kanta Loha (magnetite iron) is considered the best. Loha Bhasma is the chief remedy for Pandu (anemia), Kamala (jaundice), Yakrit-Pliha Roga (liver-spleen disorders), Shotha (edema), and Prameha (diabetes). It is Rasayana and enhances strength, complexion, and vitality. Iron must be properly purified by quenching in various liquids (Nirvapa Shodhana) and then incinerated through Puta method. Improperly prepared Loha Bhasma can cause constipation, acidity, and liver damage. Verses: 25-35.

Kasisa

Kasisa (Green Vitriol/Iron Sulphate) is a green crystalline mineral. Several types are described: Pushpa Kasisa (flower-like efflorescence — best), Dhatu Kasisa, and others. Kasisa Bhasma is used in eye diseases, anemia, worm infestations, and wound healing. It is a source of iron when properly processed. Externally used in eye preparations and wound dressings. Verses: 107-109.

Mandura

Mandura (Iron slag) is the rust or oxidized residue of iron. It is considered an Upadhatu (sub-metal) of iron. Mandura Bhasma is one of the most important preparations for Pandu Roga (anemia) and Yakrit-Pliha Vikara (hepato-splenic disorders). It is lighter and easier to digest than Loha Bhasma. It is also useful in edema, skin diseases, and worm infestations. The text describes different qualities of Mandura and methods of its preparation. Verses: 40-42.

Ironweed

Veerataru (Dichrostachys cinerea) is described as a thorny shrub or small tree. It is found across the Indian subcontinent. The bark and root are used medicinally. It has astringent and binding properties useful in diarrhea and dysentery. The characteristic bicolored flowers (yellow and pink) distinguish this plant.

Isabgol

Isabgol (psyllium) is mucilage in seed form: 1-2 teaspoons in warm water for stuck Vata stools, in cool water it firms diarrhea and soothes inflamed gut lining.

Ivy Gourd (Bimbi

Coccinia indica W&A.

Ixora

Rukmini (Ixora coccinea) is a shrub with dense clusters of bright red or orange tubular flowers. It is commonly grown in Indian gardens. The flowers and roots are used medicinally. The root decoction is used in diarrhea and dysentery. The flowers have hemostatic properties. The plant is evergreen with opposite glossy leaves. Hibiscus species are sometimes confused with Ixora. Verse: referenced among flowering shrubs.

Jackfruit

Jackfruit is Panasa: Madhura and Guru, the ripe pulp rebuilds Kshaya wasting and eases flatulence; cold bark decoction, 1-2 tola, checks loose stools.

Jadwar

Delphinium zalil is described as a Himalayan herb growing at 5000-12000 feet elevation. The flowers are yellow, pendulous. It is used in fevers, as an anti-poison herb, and for worm infestations. The plant contains flavonoids including Quercetin and Kaempferol. It is used as a dye plant as well. Dose: 2-5 rattis. Verse ref: page 432.

Jalvetasa

Jalvetasa (Salix tetrasperma) is a variety of willow specifically found near water bodies. It is a large tree growing up to 5000 feet. The bark is used medicinally similar to Salix caprea. It is considered interchangeable with other Vetasa species for medicinal purposes. Properties and uses are similar to Vetasa - antipyretic, astringent, and useful in bleeding disorders.

Jarul

Jarul, the Pride of India, is Ayurveda's leaf for Prameha. Lagerstroemin in the leaves mimics insulin; 1-2 tola decoction lowers sugar, bark checks loose stools.

Jasmine

Bela/Mogra (Jasminum sambac) is one of the most beloved fragrant flowers in India. It is an evergreen climbing shrub. The white, highly fragrant flowers bloom throughout warm months. The flowers are used in garlands, perfumery, and medicine. They are considered cooling and useful in skin diseases, eye disorders, and as an antidote. The flower oil is valuable in aromatherapy. The plant grows as a vine or shrub with glossy dark green leaves. It can grow 12-12.5 x 2-2.5 inches across. There are single and double-flowered varieties. The flowers are used in making attar (essential oil). Dose: 4-6 flowers; external application as paste. Verse: 24-26.

Jatamansi

Jatamansi (Spikenard) is the rhizome of Nardostachys jatamansi, found in the Himalayan alpine regions at 3000-5000 meters altitude. The rhizomes are covered with fibrous root remnants giving a hairy (jata) appearance. It is one of the most valued Medhya (brain tonic) drugs in Ayurveda with notable sedative and anxiolytic properties. The drug is aromatic with a distinctive musky smell. It is used for insomnia, anxiety, epilepsy, memory disorders, and as a hair tonic. It gives a dark color on boiling. It pacifies all three doshas and is used in conditions of both mental and physical debility.

Jatropha

Jatropha curcas (Jamalghota) is described as a wild castor-like plant. It is a large shrub whose seeds contain a powerful purgative oil. The seed oil is more drastic in its purgative action than castor oil and must be used very carefully. The plant has been used for severe constipation and abdominal disorders. The latex of the plant has wound-healing properties. The text warns about its strong and potentially irritating purgative effect.

Java Plum

Java Plum is the diabetic's tree: Jambu seed powder, 1-2g daily, blunts blood sugar via jamboline, while the astringent bark decoction calms Pitta bleeding and loose stools.

Jawasa

Duraalbhaa / Jawaasa (Alhagi camelorum) is commonly known as Camel Thorn. It exudes a sweet manna-like substance from its branches in summer. The plant is thorny and grows in dry regions. It is described as bitter, astringent, light, dry, and cold in potency. It is useful in bleeding disorders (Raktapitta), burning sensations (Daha), fever (Jvara), thirst (Trishna), and urinary disorders. The sweet exudate contains about 18.9% invert sugar and Melizitose (47.1%). Small, 1-2 inch leaves with sharp thorns characterize the plant. The pods are like small beads. Verse refs: pages 411.

Jayapala

Jayapala (Croton tiglium) is a well-known drastic purgative. Its seeds yield Croton oil, which is extremely potent. The text describes it as causing strong purgation and warns of its sharp (Tikshna) nature. It is used in conditions of severe constipation, abdominal distension, and dropsy. The oil is extremely irritant externally and causes blistering on skin. Internally in 1-2 drop doses it causes violent purging. The text describes various processing methods (Shodhana) to reduce toxicity before use. Various alkaloids and fatty acids are described as chemical constituents. Verse refs: page 401.

Jhau

Small tree/shrub near rivers and water bodies. Bark and galls (insect-produced growths) used. Galls more medicinally potent.

Jivaka

Microstylis sp. — ashtavarga rasayana herb

Jivanti

A note in the text identifies Dendrobium macraei (an orchid) as another plant identified as Jivanti by some authorities. It is an epiphytic orchid found on tree branches in moist forests. This reflects the botanical controversy around the true identity of the Ayurvedic drug Jivanti, with Leptadenia reticulata being the most accepted identification.

Jivanti

Jivanti (Leptadenia reticulata) is an important Jeevaniya (life-promoting) herb. It is a twining shrub found in forests across India. The plant is milky and exudes latex when cut. It is considered one of the best galactogogues (Stanyajanana) in Ayurveda, increasing breast milk production. The plant is sweet in taste with cooling potency, making it excellent for Pitta disorders. It is one of the Jeevaniya Gana drugs of Charaka Samhita. The leaves are used as a vegetable (Shakashreshtha -- best among vegetables).

Kaccholam

Curcuma zedoaria Rosc. — white turmeric / zedoary

Kacchora

Angelica glauca Edgw. — aromatic Himalayan root used as carminative.

Kadamba

Kadamba (Anthocephalus cadamba) is a large deciduous tree with globular, fragrant, orange-yellow ball-shaped flower heads. The tree is associated with Lord Krishna in Indian mythology. The bark yields 40-50 % tannins. The bark and flowers are used medicinally. The bark is a febrifuge. The flower heads are globular, 1-2 inches across, and highly aromatic. The tree grows rapidly and can reach considerable height. The bark is bitter and is used in malarial fever. The tree is also known for its beautiful appearance during the monsoon season. Verse: 16.

Kakajangha

Kakajanghaa (Leea hirta) is described as a shrub with spreading leaves. The root is used medicinally. It is described as primarily useful as an anti-poison (Vishaghna) herb. The plant has compound leaves. It also helps in reducing swellings. Verse ref: page 442.

Kakamachi

Kakamachi, called Makoy, is the liver's herb: bitter, pungent, anushna in potency, kindling Agni and clearing Yakrit. Ripe berries and decoction ease Pandu and Shotha.

Kakanasa

Kakanasa (Martynia diandra) is originally from Mexico and has naturalized in India. It is found growing on thorny bushes and waste lands. The plant has claw-like fruits. The text describes it as pungent, sharp, and hot in potency. It is used for worm infestations and as an anti-venom. The juice of leaves is applied for scorpion stings. Verse ref: page 442.

Kaknaj

Kakanaja is described briefly as related to Kakamachi family. It is used in fevers and urinary disorders. Verse ref: page 439.

Kakodumbarika

Ficus hispida Linn.f. — hairy fig

Kakoli

Roscoea procera Wall. — ashtavarga rasayana

Kala Adusa

Kala Adusa (Justicia gendarussa) is a dark-stemmed variety of the Adusa plant. Unlike the white Vasaka which is Sheeta (cooling), this variety is Ushna (hot) in potency. It is primarily used for Vata disorders including joint pain and inflammation. The leaves are used externally as poultice for pain relief. It is considered useful in rheumatic conditions.

Kalihari

Kalihari (Gloriosa superba), also known as Flame Lily or Glory Lily, is a highly potent medicinal plant whose tuberous root is the primary part used. It has strong purgative and emetic properties. The plant is described as a climber with beautiful flowers. Colchicine is its major alkaloid. It is used in gout, skin diseases, worm infestation, and as a uterine stimulant. Due to its extreme potency, the root must be purified (Shodhana) before internal use. Overdose can be fatal. The root is applied externally in paste form for skin diseases and joint pain.

Kalmegh

Kalamegha literally means ‘black cloud’ perhaps attesting to its harvest time just before winter. Also known as bhunimba meaning ‘Neem of the earth’ referring to its bitter neem-like taste and effects. Kalamegha is a very bitter tasting herb with a renowned immune-stimulating effect. It is used to treat infections, fevers and septic conditions of the blood.

Kalonji

Nigella sativa Linn. — black seed used for digestion, respiratory and immune support.

Kalonji

Used in skin diseases and respiratory disorders. Seeds contain therapeutic volatile oils.

Kampillaka

Important Krimighna drug for tapeworm. Red/orange glandular hair powder from fruits is used. Also used as natural dye.

Kamrakh

Kamarakh (Star Fruit/Carambola) is a small tree found in many parts of India. The fruit is star-shaped in cross section, hence the English name. It is sour-sweet and juicy. The fruit is eaten fresh and used in cooking. It contains significant oxalic acid. The fruit is cooling and appetizing. Modern caution: it is contraindicated in kidney disease patients due to high oxalate content. Dose: As food. Verse: 56.

Kanchanakshiri

Argemone mexicana Linn. — Mexican prickly poppy

Kanchanara

Kanchanara is the lymph and thyroid herb: Bauhinia bark dissolves Kapha growths, neck glands, cysts, and goiter. Kanchanar Guggul, 500mg twice daily, is the classical formula.

Kaner

Kaner (Nerium odorum), the Sweet-scented Oleander, is a well-known ornamental and medicinal plant. The text describes it as having red and white flowering varieties. The root, bark, leaves, and flowers all have medicinal uses. It contains cardiac glycosides making it useful in heart conditions when used in proper doses. It is classified as Visha (poisonous) and must be used with extreme caution. Externally, the root paste is applied for skin diseases (Kushtha) and parasitic skin infections. The plant is described as being bitter, hot, and sharp, effective against Kapha and Vata disorders.

Setaria italica)

Setaria italica Linn. Beauv.

Kantakari

Kantakari is the Laghu Panchamula thorn that breaks Kapha in the chest. Yellow-berried, hot, and sharp, it clears Kasa and Shwasa; the smoke is inhaled for asthma.

Kapikacchu

Kapikacchu is the Vrishya seed for nerves and ojas, rich in L-DOPA. Dosed 3-6g of powder in warm milk, it steadies tremor, rebuilds Shukra, and calms Vata.

Kapikacchu

This broad-bean-sized seed is a superb restorative to the reproductive system. Like many seeds it has the ability to potentiate the reproductive tissue as well as the nervous system. It is also used to treat tremors and spasms. The surface of the seed-pods is ‘velvety’ like a monkey’s skin. It is also an allergenic which causes an itch, hence the name ‘one who scratches like a monkey’. A-tmagupta- means ‘secret self’ referring to its therapeutic seed concealed within the irritating bean pod.

Karamarda

Karamarda (Karonda) is a thorny shrub or small tree found throughout India, often used as hedging. The ripe fruit is dark purple-black and eaten fresh or pickled. The unripe fruit is used in pickles and chutneys. It is sour and astringent. The fruit is rich in iron and Vitamin C. It is used in digestive disorders and anemia. The root is bitter and used in skin diseases. The plant yields a white milky latex. Dose: As food. Verse: 27.

Karanja

Vitex trifolia, the Three-leaved Chaste Tree, is described as a related species to the Five-leaved Nirgundi (V. negundo). It has similar but slightly milder properties. It is used for Vata disorders and inflammatory conditions. The text also references Alectra parasitica as another plant in the Nirgundi group.

Karavella

Karavella is a common vegetable also used to regulate blood sugar levels and treat urinary disorders. It is a very bitter remedy that has a wonderful healing effect on the blood.

Oleander

Karavira is Ayurveda's poison-as-medicine: Nerium oleander, all parts cardiotoxic from oleandrin. Root paste treats Kushtha, ringworm, and stubborn ulcers, externally only.

Karkatasringi

The galls (insect-produced horn-like growths) on the leaves are the part used. Found at 1500-6000 feet in Himalayas. Important ingredient of many cough/asthma formulations for children.

Karnikara

Karnikara (Pterospermum acerifolium) is a large tree found in the Himalayan foothills at up to 5000 feet. It has very large leaves (up to 1 foot diameter) with silvery underside. The white fragrant flowers bloom at night. The leaves are used as natural plates for eating. The tree grows 8-12 feet or more. The flowers and bark are used medicinally. Dose: Various external applications. Verse: 28.

Karpasa

Gossypium arboreum is the tree cotton variety described as having similar properties to G. herbaceum but growing taller (8-10 feet). The seeds and root bark are used similarly. One cotton boll produces fibers 4-5 inches long. The tree cotton variety is more commonly found in Indian gardens and fields.

Kaseruka

Scirpus grossus Linn. — bulrush tuber

Katphala

Tree found in Himalayas. Bark is the part used. Important in ENT disorders — headache, sinusitis, rhinitis. Used as Nasya (nasal insufflation).

Kelp

Salty taste.

Ketaki

Additional properties of Ketaki (Pandanus) flower are described here including its use in heart conditions, headache, and as a brain tonic. The distilled water (Kewda water) is used in cooking, especially in sweets and biryanis. The essential oil is used in perfumery. The flower is considered auspicious but traditionally not offered to Lord Shiva. Verse: 12-14.

Khadira

Khadira is the Kushtha-ghna tree: bitter, astringent heartwood that clears stubborn skin disease, Krimi, and bleeding gums. Katha 125-250mg or bark Kwatha 40-80ml.

Kitchari

Rice and lentil dish

Knot Grass

Knot-grass (Polygonum aviculare) is briefly mentioned in the text. It is an annual herb found in temperate regions. The whole plant is used. It has astringent taste with cooling potency. Used as an absorbent in diarrhea and dysentery. The plant grows close to the ground with small knotted stems.

Kodo Millet (Kodrava

Paspalum scrobiculatum Linn.

Kokum

Vrikshaamla (Kokam) is a slender evergreen tree found in the Western Ghats, particularly in Konkan region. The fruit rind is dried and used as a souring agent in Konkani cuisine. Kokam butter (extracted from seeds) is used in confections and skin care. The dried rind (Amsul) is used in cooking as a souring agent. Kokam juice (Kokam Sherbet) is a refreshing drink. Modern research has identified Hydroxycitric acid (HCA) in the fruit which has anti-obesity properties. The fruit is useful in digestive disorders, acidity and as a cooling agent. Dose: Dried rind in cooking; sherbet as desired. Verses: 60.

Kovidara

The specific flower properties of Kachnar (Bauhinia variegata) are described. The orchid-like flowers come in white, pink and purple varieties. The flower buds are extensively eaten as a vegetable. The flowers are astringent and used in glandular disorders. They are an important food source in many Indian communities. Verse: referenced in flower section.

Krishnasariva

Krishnasariva (Ichnocarpus frutescens) is described as a dark-colored climbing vine. It should not be confused with the white Sariva (Hemidesmus indicus). It has sweet, bitter taste, is heavy, unctuous, and cold in potency. It is used for blood purification, reducing burning sensations, thirst, and fevers. The plant grows on trees and is found in forests. The vine has a milky latex. Verse refs: page 426.

Kshira Kakoli

Roscoea sp. — ashtavarga rasayana; also Kshirasukla

Kuchala

Kupilu/Kuchala (Nux Vomica) is the seed of Strychnos nux-vomica, containing the highly toxic alkaloids strychnine and brucine. After proper Shodhana (purification by boiling in cow's urine or milk and removing the seed coat), it is used in Vata disorders, paralysis, facial palsy, joint disorders, and digestive weakness. The purification process detoxifies the alkaloids significantly. It is a powerful nerve stimulant in small doses. Excessive dose causes tetanic convulsions and death. Dose: 1-2 Ratti after Shodhana. Verses: 166-170.

Kumuda

Jalkumbhi (Pistia stratiotes) is a free-floating aquatic plant found in stagnant waters across India. The rosette leaves are velvety, 2-3 inches wide, with prominent veins. The small flowers are inconspicuous. The whole plant is used medicinally. It is used in bleeding disorders and urinary complaints. The plant contains 22% ash (high mineral content) with significant Potassium (8%) content. It multiplies rapidly and can cover entire water surfaces. Verse: 4-5.

Kumudini

Variparnee is described as the Indian water lily variety with smaller flowers than the Sacred Lotus. It grows in shallow ponds and slow-moving waters. The flowers are blue to purple in color. It is used similarly to other water lilies for its cooling and cardiac tonic properties.

Kupaphasarini

Kupaphasarini is a variety of creeper related to Prasarini. It is described as a trailing vine. Leptadenia spartium (another identification) is also mentioned. Used similarly to Prasarini for Vata disorders. Verse ref: page 425.

Kusha Grass

Kasa (Saccharum spontaneum) is a tall grass growing wild in many parts of India. It is similar to sugarcane but thinner. The roots are sweet and cooling. It is used as a diuretic, galactagogue, and in bleeding disorders. The root decoction is given in urinary complaints and burning micturition. The grass grows commonly near water and in waste lands. Dose: root decoction 1-2 tola.

Kusha Grass

Kusha is the sacred grass that breaks urinary stones. Its sweet, cooling root decoction, 2-4 masha, flushes Mutrakrichchhra and cools Raktapitta bleeding.

Kushtha

Highly aromatic root used since ancient times. Now protected. Extensively used in skin diseases and respiratory disorders.

Kutaja

Kutaja is Ayurveda's stop for Pravahika and Atisara: bark decoction or Kutajarista 15-30ml twice daily, Conessine alkaloids clearing amoebic dysentery at the root.

Kutki

One of the most important bitter drugs in Ayurveda. Prime hepatoprotective herb. Best Tikta Rasa drug for liver disorders and jaundice.

Lac

Resinous secretion of lac insect. Used for bone fractures (Asthi Bhagna) and as a hemostatic. Ingredient of Laksha Guggulu used for fracture healing.

Lakshmana

Lakshmana (identified as Ipomoea sepiaria) is a highly revered herb in Ayurveda for promoting fertility and conception (Garbhasthapana). The text mentions multiple possible identifications: Ipomoea sepiaria (Convolvulaceae), Atropa mandragora (Solanaceae), Smithia geminiflora (Leguminosae), and Biophytum sensitivum (Geraniaceae). The exact botanical identity remains debated. It is one of the Garbhasthapana (conception-promoting) drugs listed in classical texts. It is sweet in taste and nourishing in nature.

Monkey Jack)

Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb. — monkey jack

Lal Apamarga

Lal Apamarga (Red Prickly-Chaff) is described as a red-stemmed variety of Apamarga. It has properties similar to the white variety but is considered somewhat stronger in action. The red variety (A. bidentata and A. rubrofusca) are noted. It is used similarly for hemorrhoids, digestive disorders, and worm infestations. Verse ref: page 416.

Land Snail

Nakha-Nakhi refers to the operculum or shell parts of land snails. The text describes it as a fragrant substance used in dhupa (fumigation) preparations. It has sweet and salty taste with cooling potency. It is beneficial for eyes and hair. The operculum of snails, when burned, produces a characteristic smell and is used in incense and fumigation formulas in Ayurvedic practice. The substance is described as Snigdha (unctuous) and Sheeta (cold), pacifying Pitta and Vata. It is found in various regions of India. The text notes it has varied properties depending on the variety of snail.

Lapis Lazuli

A blue, violet or green stone that strengthens the eyes and gives strength to body, mind and consciousness

Vaidurya)

A blue stone with properties similar to lapis lazuli; helps in meditation and brings good fortune

Large Spurge

Badi Dudhi (Euphorbia hirta) is a common hairy herb found across India. It is used extensively for asthma and respiratory disorders. The whole plant exudes white milky latex. It is also used to increase breast milk production in lactating mothers. The plant grows erect up to 1-2 feet. Verse: 291-296.

Lassi

Yogurt-based drink; a cup at end of meal aids the digestive process

Lead

Naga (Lead) is the fifth metal. It is heavy, soft, and bluish-grey. Lead Bhasma is used in diabetes, obesity, urinary disorders, and worm infestations. It must be very carefully purified and processed as raw lead is highly toxic. The text warns about improper use causing severe diseases. Verses: 24-25.

Legumes

Produce gas and distention

Lemon

Lemon is Jambira, sour and hot. Morning juice in warm water with honey kindles Agni, clears Ama, treats Aruchi (loss of appetite) and Ajirna; never with milk.

Lemongrass

Bhutrina (Lemongrass) is described as an aromatic grass used in Ayurvedic medicine. The text identifies it as Cymbopogon jwarankusa, a grass found in various parts of India including the Himalayas, central India, and the Deccan. The plant grows 8-9 inches tall with jointed stems and aromatic leaves. The grass yields a fragrant essential oil. It is 23% ash with manganese present. The text describes it as a fever remedy (hence the species name jwarankusa, meaning 'fever-destroyer'). It is pungent and bitter with heating potency. Used in fevers, digestive disorders, and as a flavoring agent. Dose: 2-5 grams.

Licorice

Excellent for acidity, voice, and heart tonic (with warm milk), Vayu dossha , bronchitis, colds, cough, laryngitis, general debility, emetic (in large doses), inflammation, mental calming, mucus liquefying and expectorating, mucus membrane tonerand soother, muscle spasms, sore throat, ulcers(contains natural ulcer-healing steroid precursers),urination pain. Cleanses lungs and stomach of Kapha. For colds and flu, mix with ginger (1:1).Blood purification, abdominal pain, nourishes thebrain increasing cranial and cerebrospinal fluid.Improves complexion, hair, and vision. Spiritual Uses: Sattwic ; gives contentment and harmony

Lime

Small lime varieties (Kagzi Nimbu) are described with properties similar to Jambira (Lemon) but more sour and with thinner rind. They are widely used in cooking, pickles and as a digestive aid. The juice is used in numerous home remedies. Dose: As condiment. Verses continued.

Liquid Storax

Shilaarasa (Liquid Storax) is a balsam obtained from Liquidamber orientalis. It is a semi-liquid, aromatic resin used in Ayurvedic formulations for respiratory conditions, parasitic infections, and pain management. It is also used as a fumigant and in perfumery. The drug possesses antiseptic and expectorant properties.

Lodhra

Tree found throughout India. Bark is used. Important drug for gynecological disorders, especially Raktapradar (menorrhagia). Used in Ashokarishta and Lodhrasava. Also used cosmetically as face pack (Ubtan).

Long Pepper

Pippali has a special property — Katu taste but Madhura Vipaka. Though pungent, it does not aggravate Pitta due to sweet post-digestive effect. One of the best Rasayana drugs when used via Vardhamana Pippali method (gradually increasing then decreasing doses). Ingredient of Trikatu.

Lotus

The lotus is the supreme symbol of the evolution of the soul. As she grows from the murky depths of the muddy lake waters to her majestic flowering on the clear surface of the water of life she is a living metaphor for our growth from ignorance to wisdom. It is very useful as a brain and reproductive tonic.

Lotus

Lotus is Sheeta Virya cooling for bleeding Pitta: petals calm Raktapitta and burning skin, seeds (Kamal Gatta) check diarrhea, rhizome steadies a weak heart.

Lotus Seed

Astringent taste. Cooling, drying, heavy.

Luffa

This is another variety of Devadali (Luffa graveolens) mentioned in the text. It has similar but somewhat milder purgative properties compared to L. echinata. The text notes that this species is less commonly used.

Mace

Javitri (Mace) is the aril or seed covering (arillus) of the same fruit that yields Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans). The properties are similar to Nutmeg but somewhat milder. It is particularly valued as a digestive and for respiratory conditions. Mace is used in various spice blends and medicinal preparations. Malabarica variety (Myristica malabarica) is mentioned as an adulterant.

Madanaphala

Most important emetic drug in Panchakarma therapy. Drug of choice for Vamana Karma (therapeutic emesis).

Madar

Alarka (Calotropis gigantea) is the purple/red-flowered variety of Madar. It grows up to 4-10 feet height with thick fleshy leaves. This species is considered equivalent in properties to Calotropis procera but is more commonly found in the Himalayan foothills and southern India. It is distinguished by its purple-red flowers compared to the white flowers of C. procera.

Arka

Madar (Arka) is the wasteland shrub Ayurveda harnesses for Arsha. Processed root bark shrinks hemorrhoids, the latex calms Kushtha, leaves drive Swedana for swollen joints.

Maerua

Maerua arenaria is a tree or shrub found in the Deccan region. Its leaves and bark are used for reducing swellings and pain. The text mentions it briefly. Verse ref: page 437.

Mahabala

Sida rhombifolia Linn. — the root (moola) is used in classical formulations; a Bala-group herb valued as a tonic.

Mahameda

Polygonatum verticillatum Allioni — one of the Ashtavarga rejuvenative herbs; also called Mahapurusha.

Mahaneem

Mahaneem (Melia azedarach), also called Bakayan or Persian Lilac, is distinguished from the common Neem by its larger leaves and different fruit structure. The text notes that while the small Neem is Sheeta Virya (cold potency), Mahaneem is Ushna Virya (hot potency). It shares many properties with Neem including being bitter, anti-parasitic, and useful in skin diseases. However, it has a more pronounced purgative action. The fruits are used as beads for garlands (hence 'Bead Tree'). The bark contains the alkaloid Margosine which has anti-parasitic properties.

Mahua

Mahua flowers are tribal India's nectar: sweet, Snigdha, and cold, they rebuild flesh in Kshaya (wasting). Bark decoction, 1-2 tola, mends bone fractures.

Maidenhair Fern

Mayurshikha (Actinopteris dichotoma) is found at rocky locations at up to 4000 feet. Its fronds are fan-shaped resembling a peacock's tail. It is used in bleeding disorders and urinary complaints. The fern grows on rocks and old walls. Dose: Swarasa 1-2.5 tola. Verse: 289.

Vasaka

Vasaka is the Kasa-Shwasa drug of Ayurveda: bitter leaves rich in Vasicine that open the bronchi, calm Pitta-Rakta bleeding, and clear Kapha from the lungs.

Malabar Spinach

Basella rubra Linn. — leafy vegetable used as a cooling laxative.

Malati

Malati is described as a climbing shrub with fragrant white flowers. It is used as an antidote and in worm infestations. The flowers are sweetly scented and bloom in clusters. It is found across peninsular India. Verse: referenced in the malati section.

Malkangani

Jyotishmati (Celastrus paniculatus), known as Malkangani, is a renowned Medhya (intellect-promoting) drug. It is a large woody climber found in forests across India. The seed oil is the main medicinal part and is used both internally and applied to the head for improving memory, intellect, and cognition. The name Jyotishmati means 'luminous' or 'brightening', referring to its ability to brighten the intellect. It is an important herb in Ayurvedic neuropsychiatry.

Jyotishmati)

Celastrus paniculata Willd. — seed oil used as a brain tonic and for joint pain.

Mango

Mango is Amra: ripe flesh is Rasayana, sweet, cooling, Vata-pacifying; kernel 1-2 masha halts diarrhea, leaf decoction in diabetes, Aam Panna cools heat stroke.

Mango Ginger

Additional properties of Amrataka covering its various preparations and culinary uses. The fruit is used in pickles, preserves and as flavoring. Verses continued.

Manjishtha

The prime Raktashodhaka (blood purifier) drug in Ayurveda. The root is used — it yields a red dye. Found throughout India as a climbing plant. Used extensively in skin diseases, menstrual disorders, and as a complexion enhancer. Ingredient of Mahamanjishthadi Kwatha.

Mansarohini

Mansarohini (Soymida febrifuga) is a large tree primarily valued for promoting wound healing and tissue regeneration, as suggested by its name 'Mansarohini' (flesh-growing). The heartwood is red in colour. The bark is extremely bitter and astringent. It is mainly used in fracture healing, wound management, and as a febrifuge. The bark is used in diarrhoea due to its astringent properties. It is found commonly in Rajputana and Central India. The bark contains tannin and a bitter principle useful in fevers. The timber is red and durable. Dose: bark decoction 1-2 tola; bark powder 2-4 masha.

Maple Syrup

Sweet taste.

Marigold

Referenced in the flower section as a plant whose flowers have medicinal value. The fruit is commonly eaten as a vegetable. It is known for its anti-diabetic properties.

Marking Nut

Bhallataka (Marking Nut) is described as both a poison and a medicine. The fruit/nut of Semecarpus anacardium contains a highly caustic black oil (Bhilawa oil) that causes severe blistering. After proper Shodhana (purification through brick powder rubbing and processing with lime water), it becomes a powerful Rasayana. Purified Bhallataka is used in piles, skin diseases (especially leprosy), digestive disorders, and as a rejuvenative. The oil causes severe contact dermatitis in unpurified form. It is contraindicated in Pitta constitution and summer season. Verses: 171-178.

Marshmallow

A highly nutritive demulcent tonic that soothes mucous membranes, reduces inflammation, and rejuvenates the lungs and kidneys.

Teramnus

Additional notes on Mashaparni describing its morphological similarity to Masha (black gram) and its habitat preferences. The plant is a twining herb found in open grasslands.

Mercury

Mercury is Rasaraj, king of minerals in Rasa Shastra. Purified through 18 Samskaras and bound with Gandhaka into Kajjali, it becomes the deepest Rasayana for chronic disease.

Meshashringi

This is the detailed verse entry for Meshashringi describing its anti-diabetic properties. The text notes it destroys sweetness (Madhura-nashaka) and is especially indicated in Prameha (urinary disorders) and Madhumeha (diabetes). The leaves when eaten completely suppress sweet taste perception for some time, confirming identity. Verse refs: pages 443-444.

Mint

This hardy perennial is famously fragrant. It is full of aromatic menthol, which ‘wakes up’ the senses and decongests the orifices of the head as well as calming and relaxing digestion.

Mistletoe

Banda (Viscum album) is a parasitic plant that grows on trees. It is found in the Himalayan region at altitudes of 3000-9000 feet. Its synonyms in Hindi are Banda and Bandha. The plant is described as growing on various host trees. It is used in bleeding disorders, fractures, and as a uterine tonic. It is semi-parasitic, absorbing nutrients from the host tree. The leaves and branches are used medicinally. Different varieties grow on different trees, and the properties may vary depending on the host tree. Dose: 1-2 tola.

Mocharas

Mocharasa is the gum exudate of the Silk Cotton tree (Shalmali). It is described separately due to its specific therapeutic importance. The gum is obtained by making incisions in the bark. It is yellowish-brown, astringent and demulcent. It is one of the best drugs for Atisara (diarrhea), Pravahika (dysentery), and Raktapitta (bleeding disorders). It is also Vrishya and used in seminal debility. The gum dissolves in water and forms a mucilaginous solution. Dose: 1-2 masha. Verses: 29.

Molasses

Sweet taste but heating energy (prabhav exception to the rule that sweet is cooling).

Moonstone

A gray or white stone that absorbs lunar energy, calms the mind and relieves pitta with cooling energy

Mosambi

Sweet Orange (Mosambi) is distinguished from the sour varieties. It is sweet, cooling and nourishing. The juice is widely consumed and recommended for patients. It is one of the best fruits for convalescence. Dose: As food. Verse: 56.

Ipomoea reniformis)

Ipomoea reniformis Chois — synonym Akhuparna.

Mudga (Green Gram

Phaseolus trilobus Ait — wild mung, used in diet-based therapies.

Mudgaparni

Mudgaparni (Phaseolus trilobus) is a creeping herb whose leaves resemble those of Mudga (green gram). It is found in fields and forests during the rainy season. The whole plant is used medicinally. It is a Jeevaniya drug that acts as a cooling, nourishing, and fever-relieving agent. Along with Mashaparni, it completes the Dashamula group as part of the Laghu Panchamula substitutes in some traditions.

Mulberry

Sahdera (Shahotaka) is a small tree or large shrub found commonly in India. The bark is fibrous and was used for making paper. The young shoots and leaves are very rough. The bark and root are used medicinally, especially for dental problems. The bark is chewed or used as tooth stick. The milky latex is used in fevers and skin diseases. The bark contains a cardiac glycoside (Strebloside). The leaves are used as sandpaper. The tree grows up to 30 feet and has small fruits. Dose: Bark decoction 1-2 tola; latex topically. Verse: 34.

Mulberry

Tut (Mulberry/Shahtoot) is a moderate-sized tree cultivated for silk production (the leaves feed silkworms). The fruit is sweet-sour, dark red to black when ripe. It is cooling and blood-building. The fruit stains the mouth and fingers. The leaves are the primary food source for the silkworm (Bombyx mori). The bark and root have astringent properties. The fruit juice is used in sore throat and mouth ulcers. Dose: Fruit as food. Verse: 38.

Mullein

A powerful respiratory herb that dispels heat and congestion from the lungs and nasal passages, cleansing accumulated Kapha.

Munja Grass

Munja (Saccharum munja) is a tall grass growing near riverbanks and moist areas. It grows to 12 feet height or more. It has long leaves and tall flower stalks. The roots are sweet and cooling. Used as a diuretic and coolant. The sacred thread (Yajnopavita) is traditionally made from its fibers. The root decoction is given in urinary disorders. Related to sugarcane family. Dose: root decoction 2-4 tola.

Mura

This is the larger variety of Mura identified as Angelica glauca, found in the Himalayan region at 6000-12000 feet altitude. The text distinguishes it from the smaller variety. The roots are 4-6 inches long. It is aromatic and used in traditional medicine for digestive disorders, worm infestations, and as an antidote. The plant belongs to the carrot family (Umbelliferae). It should not be confused with Jatamansi, although they grow in similar habitats.

Murva

Murva (Marsdenia tenacissima) is a woody climber that yields strong fiber used for bowstrings. The bark fiber is extremely tough. The root and bark are used medicinally. It is described as bitter, astringent, heavy, dry, and cold in potency. It is useful in bleeding disorders (Raktapitta), burning sensations, fevers, and thirst. The plant has a milky latex. The fiber from bark is used traditionally for making bowstrings and ropes. Contains Asclepiadin and Vincetoxin alkaloids. Also has emetic properties. Dose: powder 3-5 rattis. Verse refs: pages 433.

Musali

Shakakanda is a tuberous root vegetable mentioned alongside Vidari varieties. It is used as a nutritive food and mild tonic.

Mushrooms

Earth element food.

Musk

Musk (Kasturi) is the rutting-season secretion of the Himalayan deer, Ushna and Tikshna, a fierce cardiac and nervine tonic for Hridroga, epilepsy, and Vata collapse.

Musk Mallow

Lata Kasturi (Hibiscus abelmoschus, Fam. Malvaceae) is a plant-based musk substitute. Its seeds have a strong musk-like fragrance. The plant is an annual/biennial herb found across India. Seeds (Mushkadana) are the officinal part, yielding a musk-scented fixed oil. Used as a cooling, aromatic medicine for heart conditions and burning sensations. It is considered a plant equivalent of animal Kasturi. Also used in perfumery. Shloka reference: Karpuradi Varga.

Musk Rose

Kunja (Rosa moschata) is found in mountainous regions of Western India. It is a climbing rose with clusters of fragrant white flowers. The flower fragrance is musky, hence the name. It grows well at higher altitudes in the Himalayan region (22 feet or more). Its petals are used in similar ways to other roses. Verse: 14-15.

Muskmelon

Kharbuja (Muskmelon) is a popular summer fruit with sweet fragrant flesh. It is cooling, thirst-quenching and diuretic. However, it is heavy to digest and can aggravate Kapha in excess. The seeds are cooling, diuretic and demulcent. Muskmelon should be eaten in moderation by those with weak digestion. Dose: As food. Verse: 11.

Mustard

• These little black or brown seeds have a warming and stimulating effect on the digestion and lungs. A wonderful home remedy for nipping the onset of a cold in the bud.

Myrrh

Bola (Myrrh) is a gum-resin obtained from Commiphora species. It has been used since ancient times as an aromatic, disinfectant, and wound-healing agent. In Ayurveda, it is valued for its anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and blood-purifying properties. It is used in disorders of oral cavity, skin diseases, and as an ingredient in various formulations for musculoskeletal pain.

Nagadanti

Nagadanti is a variety of Croton described as having similar but somewhat milder purgative properties compared to Jayapala. The plant grows mainly in hilly regions. Its small, round fruits and seeds are used medicinally. It is useful in Vata and Kapha disorders, abdominal diseases, and as a purgative. The text mentions it has purgative properties comparable to Danti but less drastic than Jayapala. Doses are slightly higher than those for Jayapala given its milder potency. Verse refs: page 402.

Nagakesara

Nagakesara (Mesua ferrea) flower stamens are one of the most valued flower-medicines in Ayurveda. The golden stamens from the white flowers are dried and used medicinally. They have excellent hemostatic and absorbent properties. Used in bleeding piles, dysentery, and excessive menstrual bleeding. The dried stamens are sold commercially. They have a pleasant fragrance. The tree produces hard timber. The stamens are an ingredient in many classical formulations. Verse: 15, 45.

Nagapushpi

Nagapushpi (Vitex peduncularis) is a small tree found in hilly areas. The leaves and bark are used medicinally. It grows to about 20 feet with 25 foot canopy. Its leaves and bark have fever-reducing and anti-inflammatory properties. Also mentioned is V. leucoxylon as a variety. Verse refs: pages 442-443.

Nagbala

Nagabala 3 (Grewia hirsuta) is a shrub identified by some as the true Nagabala. The stem bark is fibrous and mucilaginous. The plant grows 11-12 feet tall. The leaves are 5-6 inches long, hairy. The bark and roots are used medicinally as Balya and Vatahara. Related species include Grewia populifolia (Gangeti). The identification debate between Sida species and Grewia species as 'Nagabala' is discussed. Dose: bark decoction 1-2 tola; root powder 2-4 masha.

Nagdamani

Nagdamani (Artemisia vulgaris) is found in the Himalayan region. It has aromatic silvery-green leaves. The plant is used as an anthelmintic and digestive stimulant. The whole herb is aromatic and bitter. Used in malarial fevers in some traditional systems.

Nagkeshar

Nagkeshar is the golden stamen Ayurveda reaches for when blood breaks rank: Raktapitta, bleeding piles, dysentery. Astringent, hot, Pitta-Kapha pacifying, dosed 1-2g.

Nakuli

Nakuli is mentioned in the text in relation to snake-repelling and antitoxic herbs. The commentary discusses that this may be Rauwolfia serpentina (Sarpagandha), one of the most important medicinal plants globally. The plant is famous for its roots that yield Reserpine, an alkaloid used in modern medicine for hypertension. In Ayurveda, it is used for snake bites, insomnia, and anxiety. The roots are bitter with heating potency.

Neem

Neem is Ayurveda's foremost Kushthaghna, the bitter cooler that scrubs blood and skin. Leaf juice for eczema and acne, bark decoction for fevers, oil for ringworm.

Neem Chameli

Millingtonia hortensis, known as Akash Neem or Neem Chameli, is described as having neem-like leaves and jasmine-like fragrant white flowers. The bark is used medicinally as a febrifuge. It is a tall tree used both ornamentally and medicinally.

Night Jasmine

Parijata is the night-blooming antipyretic: leaf decoction breaks malarial and stubborn fevers, and the same bitter brew eases sciatica (Gridhrasi) and Vata back pain.

Night Lotus

Kumuda is the night-blooming white lotus, Sheeta in potency. Its rhizome cools Raktapitta bleeding, steadies Hridaya, and calms Pitta-aggravated skin.

Nirgundi

Nirgundi is Ayurveda's joint-pain herb: Vata-pacifying, hot, bitter. Nirgundi Taila warmed into stiff knees, leaf poultice on swollen joints, decoction gargled for ulcers.

Nut Grass

Musta is the cooling rhizome that stops Pitta diarrhea and Grahani malabsorption. 3-6g of powder kindles Agni without heating, anchor of Mustadi Kwatha.

Nutmeg

Jatiphala (Nutmeg) is the dried seed kernel of Myristica fragrans. It is one of the most valued spices and aromatic drugs in Ayurveda. The drug is pungent and bitter in taste with hot potency. It is an excellent digestive, anti-diarrheal, and aphrodisiac. It improves appetite and taste perception. Nutmeg has mild narcotic properties when used in excess. The volatile oil contains myristicin which has significant pharmacological activity. It is used in diarrhea, dyspepsia, and as a component of many compound formulations.

Nux-vomica

Nux-vomica (Kupilu) is poison until Shodhana tames it: purified seeds, half to one ratti, ignite Agni, lift facial palsy, and steady stalled Vata nerves.

Oats

Increase kapha and fat

Okra

Astringent taste. Cooling, drying, heavy.

Oldenlandia

Kshetraparpata (Oldenlandia corymbosa) is described as a field variety of Parpata. It grows commonly in fields during rainy season, reaching 8000 feet altitude. The plant has small white flowers and is 8-25 inches tall. It is used primarily as a febrifuge and for Pitta disorders. The text notes it is one of several plants known by the name Parpata across different regions, and lists multiple botanical correlates including species from Fumariaceae, Caryophyllaceae, and Acanthaceae families.

Onion

Palandu (Onion) is one of the most universally used vegetables in Indian cooking. It is pungent when raw, sweet when cooked. It is heavy, oily and hot. It strengthens the body and is considered aphrodisiac. It pacifies Vata. Different varieties — white, red and pink. It is used in virtually all Indian preparations. Verse: 63.

Onosma

Onosma bracteatum is found in Himalayan regions at altitudes from 1200 feet. The leaves are 15 inches long, with characteristic bristly texture (1"x1" bristles). The root yields a red dye. The plant is used in heart disorders, urinary problems, and wound healing. The leaves are also used medicinally. It is mentioned alongside Elephantopus as both share the name 'Gojiha'. Verse: 278-279.

Opal

A red or yellowish-red gem that aids child growth, promotes benevolent feelings and friendship

Opium

Ahiphena (Opium) is the dried latex obtained from unripe capsules of Papaver somniferum. It is classified as a Visha (poison) and Upavisha. After purification, it is used in very small doses as a powerful analgesic, sedative, anti-diarrheal, and antitussive. The text warns about its addictive nature and toxic effects in excessive doses. It is used in preparations for severe pain, intractable diarrhea, cough, and sleeplessness. Purification involves trituration with specific herbs. Dose: extremely small — 1/4 to 1/2 Ratti. Verses: 196-200.

Orange

Narangi (Orange) is an evergreen tree cultivated in many parts of India, particularly in Nagpur (Maharashtra), Coorg and Northeast India. The fruit is juicy, sweet-sour and one of the most popular fruits. It is appetizing and digestive. The fruit juice is rich in Vitamin C and is nutritive. The rind contains essential oils used in perfumery. Orange marmalade and juice are popular preparations. The fruit is beneficial for heart, digestion and immunity. Chemical composition includes Citric acid, Vitamin C, Bioflavonoids (Hesperidin) and essential oil (Limonene) in the rind. Dose: As food. Verses: 17.

Orpiment

Haritala (Orpiment) is a yellow arsenic mineral. Two types are described: Patra Haritala (foliated) and Pindi Haritala (massive). The foliated type is considered superior. It is used in skin diseases, vitiligo, worm infestations, and as a component of Rasa formulations. Like Manahshila, it must be carefully purified before use. Externally applied in skin conditions and hair removal. Verses: 66-68.

Padmaka

Padmaka (Prunus cerasoides/P. puddum, Fam. Rosaceae) is Wild Himalayan Cherry found in the Himalayas at 3000-6000 feet. The heartwood is reddish and fragrant. It is cooling, astringent-bitter, and primarily used in bleeding disorders, burning sensations, and skin diseases. An important ingredient in many Ayurvedic formulations for Raktapitta (bleeding disorders). The bark is used in Ayurvedic practice. Book reference: Karpuradi Varga, shloka 18.

Palash

Palash flowers (Butea monosperma) bloom spectacularly in bright orange-red during spring (February-March). The flowers yield a natural dye used for Holi festival colors. The flower petals, bark, seeds and gum (Kamarkas) are all used medicinally. The seeds are the most potent anthelmintic. The flowers are used as a natural dye and in Pitta disorders. The tree is deciduous with trifoliate leaves. It is found throughout India. The gum (Palash ka gond/Kamarkas) is used as an astringent and tonic. Referenced in Pushpa Varga. Verse: 17.

Papaya

Sweet taste, heating virya, sweet vipak. Contains natural estrogen and digestive enzymes. Blood thinner. Should not be taken during pregnancy.

Henbane

A narcotic plant used carefully in small doses for pain relief and insomnia.

Parijata

Parijata/Pharahad (Erythrina indica), the Coral Tree, is a deciduous tree with thorny bark and brilliant red flowers. The bark has a bitter taste and is used in fever, rheumatic conditions, and parasitic infections. The text describes its leaves as trifoliate, with thorny branches. Bark decoction is used for fevers and joint pain. The alkaloid Erythrine gives it anti-inflammatory properties. It is particularly noted for Vata-dominant conditions. The seeds are used as beads and the wood is light. The bark and leaves have been found to contain alkaloids with both analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities.

Parpata

Parpataka (Mollugo stricta) is another plant identified as Parpata in some regions. It is an annual herb found in fields during the rainy season. It grows 8-10 inches tall and has small white flowers. It is used as a cooling agent and febrifuge in Pitta disorders.

Parpata

Parpata (Fumaria indica), known as Pittapapda or Indian Fumitory, is a key herb for Pitta disorders. The whole plant is used medicinally. It has a markedly bitter taste and cooling potency. It is extensively used in fevers, burning sensation, excessive thirst, and blood disorders. The Fumaric acid content gives it its characteristic properties. It is one of the herbs commonly used in formulations for Jwara (fever) and Daha (burning sensation). Multiple species are referenced including F. indica, F. officinalis, and F. parviflora.

Parsley

A mineral-rich mild diuretic and emmenagogue that promotes menstruation and relieves premenstrual symptoms.

Pashanbheda

Best herb for dissolving uric acid, urinary stones/gravel (especially phosphate; also oxalate); cough, diarrhea, safer (less irritating) diuretic, fevers, vaginal diseases, Vayu tumors, pulmonary teething irritation, scurvy, tumors, enlarged pros-tate. External paste for boils.

Patala

Patala (Stereospermum suaveolens) is another important member of the Dashamula (Brihat Panchamula) group. It is a medium-sized deciduous tree with fragrant flowers. The root bark is bitter and astringent. It is used primarily in combination with other Dashamula drugs for managing inflammatory conditions, respiratory disorders, and fevers. The flowers are notably fragrant and the root bark is the main part used in Ayurvedic formulations.

Patalgarudi

Patalagarudi is described as an herb used primarily as an antidote to poisons, especially snake venom. The name suggests its root goes deep into the ground (Patala = underground). It is used in various anti-venom formulations. Verse ref: page 448.

Patchouli

Patchouli (Pogostemon patchouli) is described in the text as an aromatic plant. Its leaves yield the famous patchouli oil used extensively in perfumery. The plant is native to Southeast Asia and is cultivated in tropical regions. The leaves have a strong, distinctive, musky aroma. The dried leaves are used in sachets and as an aromatic. In Ayurveda, it is used for its aromatic and cooling properties. The essential oil is valued in modern aromatherapy. The text mentions it in the context of fragrant substances in the Karpuradi Varga.

Patha

Patha is the bitter-pungent root Ayurveda reaches for when Agni stalls and Ama settles in the gut. Root powder 1-2g kindles digestion, eases diarrhoea, and cools Shotha.

Patola

Trichosanthes cucumerina Linn. — also called Kulaka, Patavalam; snake gourd used as a bitter vegetable medicine.

Payasya

Holostemma rheedianum Spreng — a creeper used as a milk-yielding tonic.

Peach

Sour and sweet taste, heating virya, pungent vipak. Helps kill worms in colon due to heating energy and pungent vipak.

Pear

Nashpati (Pear) is a temperate fruit cultivated in the Himalayan regions and parts of North India. The fruit is sweet-astringent and nutritive. It is somewhat heavy to digest. The fruit is eaten fresh and used in preserves. Several varieties are cultivated. Dose: As food. Verse: 78.

Pearl

Mukta (Pearl) is one of the most important gems in Ayurvedic therapeutics. Mukta Bhasma (pearl ash) and Mukta Pishti (pearl ground with rose water) are widely used preparations. Pearl is cooling and indicated in burning sensation, Pitta disorders, eye diseases, heart diseases, and as a calcium supplement. The text describes 8 sources of pearls — from oysters (best), conch shells, elephant head, snake hood, bamboo, boar tusk, fish head, and clouds. Oyster pearls are the only medicinally useful ones. Good pearls are white, lustrous, round, and heavy. Verses: 80-85.

Peela Bhangra

Peela Bhangra (Wedelia calendulacea) is described as the yellow-flowered relative of Bhringaraj. The text notes that some scholars identify this as the true Bhringaraj while others consider Eclipta alba as the authentic one. It has similar hair-promoting and rejuvenative properties. The yellow flowers distinguish it from the white-flowered Eclipta alba. Verse ref: page 430.

Peelu

Peelu is the Miswak tree, Ushna and Katu, twigs naturally rich in fluoride and trimethylamine that scrub plaque, kill Krimi, and harden tooth enamel.

Peepal Tree

Peepal bark is Ayurveda's astringent for Raktapitta, the cooling Panchavalkala member that staunches bleeding, calms Pitta skin, and gargled as decoction heals stomatitis.

Pellitory

Nerve disorders, bowel conditions, seminaldebility, gargle for tooth problems (e.g., toothache),sore throat and tonsils; paralysis, hemiplegia, epilepsy, rheumatism, promotes talking in retarded children, with honey for epilepsy (internal and assnuff), diabetes. Promotes saliva.

Pennyroyal

A warming emmenagogue and antispasmodic that clears the channels of the nervous and female reproductive systems.

Pentapetes

Bandhuka / Dupahariya (Pentapetes phoenicea) is an annual herb that opens its flowers around noon, hence the Hindi name 'Dopahariya' (of noon). The flowers are bright red or orange, 2-2.5 inches across. The plant grows 6-20 inches tall. The flowers are used in bleeding disorders and as a skin tonic. It has cooling properties. Verse: 30.

Phala Priyangu

This is a variety of Priyangu identified as Aglaia roxburghiana of the Meliaceae family. The commentary discusses this as one of the plants sometimes used as Priyangu. The plant is a small to medium-sized tree. The fruits are small and used medicinally. It has cooling properties and is used in bleeding disorders and burning sensations.

Phalgu

Ficus hispida Linn. — the hairy fig, fruit and bark used medicinally.

Phalsa

Parushaka (Phalsa) is a small tree or shrub found throughout the plains of India. The fruit is small, round, dark purple when ripe and has a sweet-sour taste. It is a popular summer fruit, eaten fresh or as sherbet. The fruit juice is cooling, thirst-quenching and excellent in summer heat. It is useful in Raktapitta (bleeding disorders) and Daha (burning sensation). The fruit is seasonal, available in May-June. The bark is demulcent. Dose: Fruit as food; sherbet freely. Verses: 37.

Cajanus cajan)

Cajanus cajan (Linn.) Millsp. — pulse crop used in Ayurveda as Adhaki.

Pine Resin

Pine Resin is Sarala, the Himalayan Chir Pine whose hot, sharp oleoresin clears Kapha-Vata. Applied to skin lesions and wounds, inhaled to expel Krimi and ear pain.

Pineapple

Sweet and sour taste, heating virya, pungent vipak. Unripe fruit is pitta provoking; ripe fruit soothes vata and kapha. Not good for pitta constitution by itself. Not for children under seven.

Pinto Beans

Air element food. Gas-producing.

Pippali Mula

Root of Pippali. Stronger in Deepana action than the fruit. More Ushna than fruit. Part of Panchakola group. Especially useful in abdominal disorders.

Pita Shirisha

The bark of this tree is renowned for strengthening the lungs and clearing mucous accumulations from the lymph and lungs. It is a potent antiallergenic herb.

Plaksha

Plaksha (White Fig) is a large tree resembling the Banyan. The bark, latex, leaves and fruits are used medicinally. It is one of the Panchavalkala (five barks). Its properties and uses are similar to Vata (Banyan) and Udumbara. It is astringent, cooling and useful in Raktapitta, Yoniroga, and Vrana. The bark decoction is used in diarrhea, dysentery and bleeding disorders. Dose: Bark decoction 1-2 tola. Verses: 11-12.

Polycarpea

Pippalpabha (Polycarpea corymbosa) is yet another plant identified by some as a Parpata variety. It grows in rainy season in fields, forming small bunches 2-8 inches tall. The plant has silvery-white inflorescences. It is used as a coolant and is considered bitter in taste.

Polygonum

Polygonum plebejum is found across India at up to 5000 feet. It is a small prostrate herb with tiny pink flowers. The whole plant is used. It is used for worm infestations and urinary complaints. It is commonly found on wastelands and paths. Dose: 2-4 tola. Verse: mentioned in the guduchyadi section.

Pomegranate

Pomegranate is Dadima, Tridoshahara and Hridya, the heart-friend fruit. Sweet juice rebuilds blood in Pandu, the astringent rind powder, 1-2 masha, halts Diarrhea.

Posta)

Seeds used in gruel for diarrhea

Potato

Nightshade vegetable; causes gas. Antidoted by ghee and black pepper

Prickly Chaff Flower

Prickly Pear

The flower of Karnikara (Pterospermum) is specifically described for its fragrance and cooling properties. The large white flowers bloom at night. They are used in Pitta disorders and skin complaints. Verse: 28.

Prickly Poppy

A common thorny weed found throughout India. The yellow latex (juice) is used topically for skin diseases. The plant is considered poisonous if consumed internally in large amounts.

Prishnaparni

Prishnaparni (Uraria picta), also known as Pithvan, is a member of the Laghu Panchamula (five smaller root drugs of Dashamula). It is an erect herb found in the forests of India. The leaves are spotted/variegated (hence the name Prishna = spotted, Parni = leaved). The root is used medicinally. A second species, Uraria lagopoides DC., is also mentioned as a substitute. The plant is valued for its anti-pyretic and anti-diarrheal properties and is an essential ingredient in Dashamula combinations.

Priyangu

Priyangu, Callicarpa macrophylla, is Ayurveda's cooling astringent for Raktapitta: violet berries dosed 3-6g to staunch bleeding, calm Pitta, and settle loose stools.

Priyangu - Aglaia variety

This is the Aglaia roxburghiana variety of Priyangu discussed in the commentary. The text mentions that some scholars identify this Meliaceae family plant as the true Priyangu. The small flowers are fragrant. The commentary evaluates different species identified as Priyangu by various authorities and discusses the merits of each identification.

Priyangu - Prunus variety

This is another plant discussed in the commentary as a possible identity for Priyangu. Prunus mahaleb is a cherry tree found in Western Asia. It produces small, cherry-like fruits. The bark and seeds contain hydrocyanic acid, coumarin, salicylic acid, and amygdalin. It has cooling properties and is used for complexion improvement and bleeding disorders. The commentary mentions this as part of the ongoing debate about Priyangu's true identity.

Psyllium

Aśva-karn. a means ‘horse’s ear’ and relates to the shape of the small pink seed resembling the equine ear. Psyllium is a very useful demulcent bulk laxative for treating constipation from dryness.

Pumpkin Seeds

Earth element food.

Punarnava

Punarnava means "renews the body" and Ayurveda uses it to drain Shotha, edema parked in the tissues. Root powder 1-3g unloads kidneys, liver, and tired heart.

Punnaga

Calophyllum inophyllum Linn. — source of the medicinal tamanu oil.

Pupalia

Nagadamani (Pupalia lappacea) is found in jungles across India. It is a hairy herb with characteristic hooked bristle fruits that stick to clothing. Used as an antidote and in inflammatory conditions. The roots are the primary medicinal part. Verse: mentioned in the context of anti-venom herbs.

Purple Lippia

Jalvipipalika (Lippia nodiflora) is a prostrate creeping herb found in moist areas. The entire herb is used in traditional medicine. It is commonly found near water courses and on wet grounds. Used in urinary disorders and as an anti-inflammatory. The plant has small purple or white flowers in dense heads. Dose: 2-3 tola; Churna 1-2 tola. Verse: 269-296.

Pushkaramoola

This hardy perennial is in the same family as Europe’s elecampane (Inula helenium). Pushkaramoola literally means ‘lotus root’ and is a big-rooted, aromatic tonic with a specific affinity for the heart, lungs and digestive tract.

Ragi

Eleusine coracana Gaertn. — finger millet

Rajadana

Rajamra (Kalami/Grafted Mango) is the superior variety of mango obtained through grafting. It is considered the best among all mangoes. The fruit is very sweet, fragrant and has less fiber compared to wild varieties. It is more nutritious and better for Vrishya (aphrodisiac) purposes. It is the most commonly cultivated variety today. Verses: 2.

Lal Adusa

Raktavasaka (Justicia picta) is described as a red-flowered variety of Vasaka. It is found growing in gardens and is 8-9 inches tall with reddish leaves. The text indicates it has similar properties to the white-flowered Vasaka (Adhatoda vasica) but is specifically noted as a variety. It is used for cough, bleeding disorders, and Kapha conditions.

Rasaut

Rasaut is a concentrated aqueous extract of Daruharidra bark — the bark is boiled in water repeatedly and concentrated into a paste. Used topically for eye diseases (applied as Anjana) and as an anti-infective. The yellow color is from Berberine. Important traditional preparation.

Rasna

Most important Vatahara drug. Leaves used. Found in dry regions of North/Central India. Ingredient of Rasnadi Churna, Rasnadi Kwatha.

Realgar

Manahshila (Realgar) is a red arsenic mineral. It is used after purification in skin diseases, worm infestations, fevers, and poisoning. It is a component of many Rasa formulations. Two types are recognized — Shyama (dark) and Rakta (red). It must be carefully purified as it contains arsenic. Used externally in skin diseases and internally in very small doses. Verses: 63-65.

Red Bead Tree

Raktakambal (Adenanthera pavonina Linn., Fam. Leguminosae/Mimosaceae) — also known as Badi Gumchi. A large tree found in Western and Southern India. Its bright red seeds are used as weights by jewelers. The bark and seeds are used medicinally as an emetic and tonic. Book reference: Karpuradi Varga.

Red Clover

A mild, pleasant-tasting blood purifier suitable for long-term use by children, the elderly, and in chronic conditions like cough and skin eruptions.

Red Coral

Best source of easily digestible calcium, osteoporosis. It is mainly used for coughs, wasting, asthma, low fever, urinary diseases, carbuncles, scrofula, spermatorrhea, gonorrhea and other genital inflammation with mucus discharge. Other mainuses include nerve headaches, giddiness, and ver-tigo. Also, it is used for chronic bronchitis, pul-monary tuberculosis, vomiting, dyspepsia, biliousheadache, weakness, and debility. It is also used in tooth powders as an astringent. Praval piahti for ulcers.Preparation: Ash powder

Red Meat

Heavy to digest

Red Ochre

Gairika (Red Ochre) is a red-coloured iron-rich earth/mineral. Two types are described: Swarna Gairika (golden-red, superior) and Dhatu Gairika. It is used in bleeding disorders, vomiting, eye diseases, and skin conditions. It is cooling and astringent. Used both internally (as Bhasma) and externally (as paste). Verses: 119-120.

Red Raspberry

Diarrhea, dysentery, female reproductiveorgans, heartburn, thirst, cholera hemorrhoids,hemorrhage in stomach, inflamed mucous membranes, intestinal flu, menstruation (irregular or excess), kidneys, liver, nausea, Pitta disorders, pre-childbirth toning, prolapse of uterus or anus, sores,spleen, vomiting, tones lower abdomen muscles,uterine bleeding, sore throats, wounds, ulcers, passive stomach hemorrhage, summer heat. The Ayurveda Encyclopedia 86Precautions: Most varieties promote abortion except American red raspberry; Vayu constipation

Red Sandalwood

Red Sandalwood is Sheeta-virya Rakta Chandan, the cooling paste for Raktapitta, burning skin, and inflamed eyes. External wash, internal decoction for bleeding heat.

Rehmannia

An important tonic and rejuvenative herb for the kidneys and liver, widely used in Chinese medicine for countering aging and dryness.

Renuka

Renuka is described as a member of the Piperaceae family, identified as Piper aurantiacum. The text mentions it has pungent taste with heating potency. It is found in the forests of central and eastern India. The fruits are small and used medicinally. The drug is used as a digestive, expectorant, and anthelmintic. The text notes that the plant produces small berries. Renuka is not widely available in the market and may be substituted by related Piper species. Dose: 1-3 grams.

Rhododendron

The text mentions Rhododendron species in the context of Talisapatra discussion. Three species are noted: R. anthopogon (found at 10-14,000 feet, 2-4 feet tall shrub with aromatic leaves, 1-2 inch flowers), R. campanulatum (found at higher altitudes, 4-12 feet tall with white-pink flowers), and R. lepidotum (found at similar altitudes). The flowers and leaves have medicinal value. The commentary discusses these as Himalayan aromatic plants sometimes confused with Talisapatra. They are used in cough preparations. R. anthopogon is particularly aromatic and used in Tibetan medicine as well. Dose: 2-4 grams.

Rhubarb

Revandchini (Rhubarb) is the root of Rheum emodi. It is used as a liver tonic, purgative, and digestive stimulant. The root is brownish-red with a characteristic smell. It contains Anthraquinone glycosides which give it its purgative action. Used in liver disorders, constipation, and indigestion. Available as R. emodi (Indian) and R. webbianum Royle varieties. The root yields a yellow dye. Dose: 2-4 Masha. Verses: 131-133.

Ridge Gourd

Devadali (Luffa echinata) is a climbing plant found in dry scrub forests. Its fruits are small and covered with soft spines. The fruit is extremely bitter and is used as a purgative and in malarial fever. It is also effective against worms and used in skin diseases. The fruit is used for jaundice and liver disorders. The decoction of fruit is used as nasal drops (Nasya) for headache. Verse: 299-301.

Rishabhaka

Microstylis wallichii Lindl. — one of the Ashtavarga group of rejuvenative orchids.

Rock Salt

Saindhava (Rock Salt) is considered the best among all salts in Ayurveda. Unlike common salt (Samudra Lavana), it does not aggravate Pitta. It is recommended for daily use over sea salt. Found naturally in salt mines, especially in Sindh/Punjab region (hence Saindhava — from Sindhu). Contains trace minerals. Recommended as the salt of choice in Ayurvedic diet.

Rohitaka

Rohitaka is a medium-sized tree found in dry and arid regions of Rajasthan and Gujarat. The bark is the main medicinal part, particularly valued for its action on the liver and spleen. It is the drug of choice in Pleehodara (splenic enlargement) and Yakrit roga (liver diseases). The bark is given with buttermilk or in decoction form. It is one of the most important hepatoprotective drugs in Ayurveda. The tree also yields good quality timber used in furniture. Dose: Bark decoction 1-2 tola; Churna 1-2 masha. Verse: 18.

Rose

Gulab (Rose, Rosa centifolia) is extensively cultivated across India. The flowers are 4-5 inches across and highly fragrant. Rose water (Gulab Jal) is widely used in cooking, medicine, and cosmetics. Rose oil (Gulab ka Attar) is one of the most expensive essential oils. The flower petals are used in Gulkand (rose petal preserve), which is cooling and useful in Pitta disorders. Roses come in various colors - red, pink, white, yellow. The red rose is most commonly used medicinally. The rose hips are also nutritious. Rosa alba (Sevanti Gulab) is the white variety used as a mild laxative. Dose: Gulkand 2-4 tola. Verse: 11-13.

Rose Mallow

Vanamallika is described as a tree-type jasmine (Jasminum arborescens) found in forests. It has white fragrant flowers. It differs from the cultivated varieties in being more robust and tree-like. Used similarly to other jasmines for skin and blood purification. Verse: noted in commentary.

Rose Water

Cooling water used as eye drops

Rosha Grass

Rohisha (Cymbopogon schoenanthus) is an aromatic grass used medicinally and for extraction of essential oil. It is found mainly in central and southern regions of India. The grass has a strong lemon-like fragrance. It yields Geranium oil on distillation. The root and leaves are used medicinally. It is a stimulant, carminative, and digestive. Used in Kapha and Vata disorders, indigestion, and worm infestations. The grass is used as a flavoring agent and in perfumery. Dose: decoction 2-4 masha.

Ruby

Manikya (Ruby) is a precious red gemstone. Ruby Bhasma is used in heart diseases, digestive weakness, eye diseases, and as a rejuvenative. It is considered warming and strengthening. The text describes characteristics of good rubies — deep red color, transparency, and luster. Flawed rubies should not be used medicinally. Verses: 74-76.

Rudraksha

Rudraksha is Shiva's bead worn as medicine. Cool, astringent seed powder 1-2 ratti steadies blood pressure, eases Hridroga, and calms the mind via Elaeocarpine.

Safed Musali

Like most members of the Asparagus genus safed musali is considered to be a fertility tonic which nourishes the tissues of the mind, nervous and reproductive systems.

Safed Musli

Safed Musli 1 (Asparagus adscendens) is one of the plants identified as Safed Musli (white musli). The tuberous roots are white, fleshy, and mucilaginous. It grows in the Himalayan foothills. The roots are used fresh or dried as a Vrishya (aphrodisiac) and nutritive tonic. It is highly valued in traditional medicine for sexual debility and general weakness. It promotes semen production and overall vitality. Dose: root powder 5-10 ratti.

Safflower

Kusumbha (Safflower, Carthamus tinctorius) is an important flower used for its dye and oil. The flowers yield a red-orange dye (Carthamin) used in textiles and food coloring. The seeds yield Safflower oil, rich in unsaturated fatty acids. The flowers are used medicinally as an emmenagogue and in joint pains. The plant is thistle-like with spiny leaves. It grows 2-4 feet tall. The oil is used in cooking and for cardiac health. The dried flowers are used in Ayurvedic preparations. Dose: 1-2 tola seeds; flowers externally. Verse: 19.

Saffron

Saffron is Kumkuma, the Rasayana that brightens blood, complexion, and Sadhaka heart-mind. Dosed 50 to 125 mg steeped in warm milk for anemia, angina, and anxiety.

Sage

A drying, astringent herb with strong action for reducing excess secretions in the body and calming the mind.

Sahachara

Sahachara (Barleria sp.) is a shrubby plant used primarily for Vata disorders. The root and leaves are used medicinally. The text describes multiple species used under this name. It is a common ingredient in Ayurvedic hair oils. The plant has anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties, making it useful for joint pain and rheumatic conditions.

Sal Resin

Rala is the resin obtained from the Sal tree (Shorea robusta). It is astringent and sweet in taste with cooling potency. It is primarily used for wound healing and as a hemostatic agent. The resin is applied externally on wounds and fractures. Internally it is used for diarrhea and bleeding disorders. It is an important ingredient in plasters and ointments used in bone-setting.

Salep Orchid

Wasting diseases, diabetes, chronic diarrhea,dysentery, nervous or sexual debility, hemiplegia,paralysis, general weakness, impotence.

Saltpetre

Potassium Nitrate (KNO₃) — found naturally. Used as diuretic and in urinary stone conditions. Also used in food preservation.

Sandalwood

Sandalwood is Chandana, the cooling Pitta-pacifier Ayurveda turns to for burning skin, fever, and Raktapitta. Paste on acne, decoction for urinary heat, oil for the heart.

Sappan Wood

Patanga (Caesalpinia sappan, Fam. Caesalpiniaceae) is Sappan Wood, a medium-sized thorny tree. The heartwood yields a red dye used in fabrics and preparations. It has astringent-bitter taste with cooling potency. Used in blood disorders, skin diseases, and wounds. Heartwood is the medicinal part — deep red with strong coloring properties. Contains Brasilin and Haematoxylin as key chemical principles. Also used as a fabric dye. Its decoction is blood-purifying. Book reference: Karpuradi Varga, shloka 18-19.

Sapphire

Indranila (Blue Sapphire) is a blue precious gemstone. It is considered cooling and anti-toxic. Its Bhasma is used in poisoning and eye diseases. It is associated with Saturn (Shani) in Jyotisha (Vedic astrology). Verses: 79.

Saptaparna

Saptaparna is Ayurveda's quinine: intensely bitter bark, dosed 1-3g for malarial fevers, worms, and weeping skin disease. The hero herb of Ayushmanabhairava Rasa.

Saptarangi

Salacia chinensis Linn. — also listed as Mehari moola and Ekanayaka; a prominent herb for Prameha (diabetes).

Sariva

Sariva is Ayurveda's blood-cooler, the Rakta-shodhana root for hot skin, acne, and burning urine. Dosed 3-6g of powder, it clears Pitta and quiets Amlapitta.

Sarja

Vateria indica Linn. — source of Sarja niryasa, the white dammar resin.

Sarpagandha

Sarpagandha is a strong remedy for reducing blood pressure, sedating the nervous system and inducing sleep. Sarpagandha means ‘smell of the snake’ and it is renowned as an antidote for poisonous snake bites.

Sarpunkha

Sarpunkha is Plihashatru, the enemy of the spleen. Bitter, astringent, hot Tephrosia purpurea shrinks Pliha Roga, clears Yakrit, and scours Krimi from Kapha-clogged blood.

Saugandhika

Saugandhika is described as a fragrant variety of water lily. Its specific property is the delightful fragrance of the flower. Used similarly to other water lilies for cooling and cardiac support. Verse: 9.

Scarlet Cordia

Lasora/Gonda (Cordia) is a tree whose fruits are used as a vegetable (pickled). The flowers and fruits are both medicinal. The mucilaginous fruit is used in cough and respiratory conditions. The tree is medium-sized with rough leaves. Referenced in the flower section.

Sea Salt

Common salt from sea water evaporation. Unlike Saindhava (Rock Salt), it aggravates Pitta and is considered inferior for medicinal use. However, it is the most commonly used salt in cooking worldwide.

Senna

The leaf and pod of senna are powerful laxatives. It thrives in the dry and hot conditions of Gujarat and is especially good at purging dampness and heat. Ra-ja-vr. ks.a literally means ‘snake smell’.

Sensitive Plant

Lajjalu (Mimosa pudica) is well known as the sensitive plant due to its leaves closing on touch. The whole plant is used medicinally. It is particularly useful in bleeding disorders (Raktapitta), diarrhea, and as a uterine tonic. It has wound healing properties and is used in piles and fistula. The root decoction is used in urinary tract infections. Dose: Swarasa 2-4 tola; Churna 1-2 tola.

Sesame Seeds

A rejuvenative nutritive tonic especially beneficial for Vata constitution and for strengthening bones and teeth.

Sesbania

Agastya (Sesbania grandiflora) is a fast-growing tree found in tropical and subtropical regions. It grows 14-20 feet tall. The flowers, leaves, and bark are all used medicinally. White and red flowered varieties exist. Flowers are eaten as a vegetable. The bark is used as a bitter tonic. The juice of leaves and flowers is used in nasal polyps and sinusitis. Leaves have 12-15 pairs of leaflets. Flowers are 22-24 inches long in drooping racemes. It is used in respiratory and blood disorders. Dose: Churna (a.r. 24). Verse: noted alongside other tree medicines.

Shaddock

Madhukarkati (Shaddock/Pomelo/Chakotra) is the largest citrus fruit. The tree grows in many parts of India. The fruit has a thick rind and segmented flesh. The flesh is sweet-sour and refreshing. The fruit is eaten fresh. The rind is used in marmalade. The various citrus fruits including Grape fruit are related to this species. The essential oil from the rind (Neroli oil) is fragrant. Dose: As food. Verse: 52.

Shaivar

Vallisneria spiralis is a submerged aquatic plant with ribbon-like leaves. Found in freshwater habitats. The female flowers rise to the surface on long spiral stalks. It is used as an astringent in traditional medicine. The plant is dioecious. Verse: 8 (mentioned in the context of aquatic plants).

Shalaparni

Shalaparni (Desmodium gangeticum) is a member of the Laghu Panchamula (five smaller root drugs of Dashamula). It is a perennial herb or undershrub found in grasslands and forests across India. The root is the main medicinal part. It is sweet and bitter in taste with warming potency. The plant is particularly useful in fevers, respiratory disorders, and diarrhea. It is a key ingredient in Dashamula formulations and Dashamularishta.

Shallot

Similar properties to garlic but milder. Single-cloved variety. Used similarly to regular garlic.

Shalmali

Shalmali is the Silk Cotton Tree, its Mochras gum a cooling, sweet Vrishya that stops Raktapitta bleeding, soothes diarrhoea, and rebuilds seminal strength at 4-5 masha.

Shami

Shami (Prosopis) is a medium-sized thorny tree found in arid and semi-arid regions of India, particularly Rajasthan. The tree is sacred in Hindu tradition - Shami puja is an important ritual. The bark, leaves and pods are used medicinally. The pods are eaten as a vegetable and cattle fodder. The bark is astringent and used in skin diseases and piles. The leaves are used in eye diseases. The tree produces a gum similar to Gum Arabic. It is drought-resistant and important in desert ecology. Dose: Bark decoction 1-2 tola; leaf juice 1-2 tola. Verse: 39.

Shankhapushpi

Shankhapushpi is the Medhya Rasayana for a foggy mind. Cool, bitter, and unctuous, 3-6g of root powder in warm milk sharpens Smriti and steadies frayed nerves.

Shatavari

Shatavari is the Rasayana for women: cooling, unctuous root that builds milk, eases Pitta heat, and steadies cycles. Dose 3-6g powder simmered in warm milk.

Shikakai

Acacia concinna DC. — synonyms Sankhini, Satala; the traditional hair-wash pod.

Shilajit

A natural mineral pitch from the Himalayas used for many conditions of weakness, debility, and urinary disorders.

Shimshapa

Shimshapa is a moderate-sized tree found in the sub-Himalayan forests and Central India. The bark and heartwood are used medicinally. The bark is astringent and used in skin diseases and worm infestations. The wood is used for making agricultural implements. It is a notable timber tree. Note: This is sometimes confused with Dalbergia sissoo (true Shisham) but the text refers to Ougeinia. The bark decoction is used in skin diseases. Dose: Bark decoction 1-2 tola. Verse: 41.

Shirisha

Shirisha is Ayurveda's Vishaghna, the bark that quiets allergic storms. Decoction of 10-20g calms asthma, urticaria, and snakebite reactions; seeds clear the eyes.

Shveta Khadira

Shveta Khadira (White Cutch) is a variety of Khadira with lighter colored bark and heartwood. It grows in dry regions and yields white or pale colored extract. Its properties are similar to Khadira but it is also considered Medhya (intellect promoting). The bark and heartwood are used medicinally. It is used in skin diseases, worm infestations and for improving memory. Dose: Kwatha 1-2 tola. Verse: 16.

Shyonaka

Shyonaka (Oroxylum indicum) is an important member of the Dashamula group (Brihat Panchamula -- five large root drugs). It is a tall tree found in sub-Himalayan tracts and forests. The root bark is the primary part used in medicine. The tree is also known as 'Broken Bones Plant' in English due to the appearance of its fallen pods. Its bark and root bark are bitter and astringent, used especially in managing diarrhea, dysentery, fevers, and inflammatory conditions. It is one of the key ingredients in Dashamularishta.

Silver

Rajata (Silver) is described as the second major metal. Silver Bhasma is cooling, sweet, and is used in diseases of Pitta origin. It is a powerful Medhya (brain tonic) and is indicated in neurological disorders, memory loss, general debility, and urinary diseases. The text describes varieties of silver — Khara Rajata and Mlechha Rajata. Silver of good quality should be white, lustrous, soft, and malleable. It is purified using specific processes before incineration. Silver that is reddish or brittle is considered impure. Verses: 15-18.

Silver Pyrites

Rajata Makshika (Iron Pyrites) is a silver-grey mineral. Its Bhasma is used in skin diseases and eye disorders. It has similar but milder properties compared to Swarna Makshika. Verses: 128.

Sindoor

Sindura (Red Lead) is a compound of lead. It is used primarily externally in wound healing and skin diseases. Internal use requires extreme caution due to lead toxicity. It is also used as a cosmetic (vermilion). Verses: 149.

Skullcap

A calming nervine herb with special properties for lowering high Pitta and reducing fiery emotions of anger, jealousy, and hatred.

Slippery Elm

A highly nutritive tonic herbal food that rebuilds plasma and restores mucous membranes, particularly of the lungs and stomach.

Small Bakula

The larger variety of Bakula is mentioned with similar properties but considered more potent in its astringent action. It is used especially for dental problems. The bark is preferred for oral health preparations. Verse: 24.

Small Jamun

Kshudra Jambu is the smaller variety of Jamun found near rivers and streams. Its properties are similar to the larger Jamun but it is smaller and considered less potent. The fruit is eaten fresh. Verse: 21.

Dugdhika

Chhoti Dudhi (Euphorbia thymifolia) is a small prostrate herb found throughout India at up to 4500 feet altitude. It exudes white milky latex when broken. The whole plant is used. It is useful in dysentery, diarrhea, and bleeding disorders. It is also applied on wounds and cuts. The plant has tiny opposite leaves arranged along reddish stems. It is one of the common folk medicines used across India. Verse: 291-296.

Snuhi

Tridhara Snuhi (Euphorbia antiquorum) is the triangular spurge variety with three-ridged stems. It is found in dry regions of India. Like Snuhi, its latex is used medicinally as a purgative and for skin conditions. The text describes it as having similar but somewhat milder properties compared to E. neriifolia.

Snuhi

Milky juice cathartic to relieve earache,liver and spleen disorders, syphilis, edema, skindiseases, asthma, cough, remove warts (externally used), with soot of ghee lamp as an eye salve for ophthalmia; externally with ghee applied to ulcers and scabies; glandular swellings prevents pus formation and oozing; with turmeric applied tohemorrhoids. Mainly used externally.

Soap Nut

Reetha is Ayurveda's saponin fruit, the classical Vamana emetic and Shirovirechana nasal cleanse. Dose 2-4 ratti of churna for worms, rhinitis, and skin disease.

Solomon's Seal

A nutritive tonic and rejuvenative herb used for debility, infertility, and chronic wasting diseases.

Soma

Soma is Ephedra gerardiana, Himalayan stem rich in ephedrine. Ushna and Katu, it opens Shvasa (asthma), steadies a weak heart, dosed 2-3 drops of tincture.

Soma

The Soma plant (referenced in Vedic literature) is described in the text with various botanical identifications proposed by different scholars. It is one of the most debated plants in Ayurvedic history. The juice extracted from the plant was used in Vedic rituals and was considered a divine Rasayana. The text describes its identification challenges and multiple proposed candidates.

Soma Vriksha

Bauhinia tomentosa, the Yellow Bauhinia, is described as a yellow-flowered variety. It is more common in southern India and used similarly to other Bauhinia species for glandular swellings.

Somala

Somal (White Arsenic) is a highly toxic mineral poison. After extensive purification (Shodhana), it is used in very minute doses in intermittent fevers (malaria type), chronic skin diseases, and as a component of some Rasa formulations. Unpurified arsenic is lethal. The text gives strict warnings about its toxicity and describes purification methods involving cow's urine, lime water, and other detoxifying agents. Verses: 150-155.

Sonapatha

Sonapatha is described in the text as related to Shyonaka (Oroxylum indicum). The bark is used in various Dashamula formulations. It is found in forests across India and its root bark is valued for anti-inflammatory and anti-diarrheal properties.

Prunus cerasus)

Prunus cerasus Linn. — synonyms Aileya, Aileyaka.

Sour Cream

Sour taste. Fermented dairy product.

Spanish Jasmine

Chameli (Jasminum grandiflorum) is an important jasmine species used in perfumery and medicine. It is found across India growing as a large climbing shrub. The flowers are white, intensely fragrant, and bloom profusely. Chameli oil is one of the most valued attars. The flowers open at dusk releasing their sweet fragrance. It is used in skin diseases, eye disorders, and wounds. The leaves are used in dental problems. The plant flowers are larger than Mogra. Verse: 6-12, Pushpa Varga; also referenced in 24-26.

Spider Flower

Hurhur (Cleome viscosa) is described as a variant growing across India. It has sticky glandular hairs and yellow flowers. The seeds yield oil that is used medicinally. It is the primary Cleome species used. The seeds resemble mustard and have a strong odor. The plant has 5-petaled flowers and palmate leaves. The juice of leaves is used for ear pain. C. monophylla is also mentioned as a related species. Verse: 274.

Spider Plant

Sapedi (Ophiorrhiza mungos) is found in forests of South India at altitudes up to 2000 feet. It is well known as an antidote for snake bites, hence the name 'mungos' (mongoose). The root is the main part used. The root is bitter and is used in fevers and as a poison antidote. Its Sanskrit synonym suggests its snake-repelling properties. Dose: Swarasa 24-80 drops; Churna 10-20 grains. Verse: 276.

Spiked Ginger Lily

Crush the rhizome and it smells like camphor: that's Kapur Kachri, Ayurveda's hot, pungent fix for Khalitya hair loss, Krimi worms, and Kapha-laden cough.

Amaranthus spinosus)

Amaranthus spinosus Linn. — leafy herb used as a cooling diuretic.

Sponge Gourd

The fruit properties of Devadali are described separately. The fruits are used in specific formulations for jaundice, spleen disorders, and as a strong purgative. They should be used with caution due to their potent emetic and purgative actions. Used in Spastic constipation and Irritable colon (Colitis). Dose: 4-12 ratti.

Sprouts

Air element food. Rough vegetable, gas-producing.

Illicium verum)

Illicium verum Hook. f. — aromatic fruit used as spice and medicine.

Rock Foil

Vatpashani (Saxifraga ligulata) is described on page 205 of the text. It is recognized for its ability to break down urinary stones. It grows in hilly and rocky regions of the Himalayas. The rhizome is the main medicinal part used. It is referenced in this varga as a useful herb for urinary tract disorders.

Stone Flower

Stone Flower (Shaileya) is the rock lichen Ayurveda burns in skin and bleeding formulas. Bitter, astringent, cooling; 2-4g cools Pitta, clears Kushtha, calms Raktapitta.

Strawberry

Sour, sweet, astringent rasa; heating virya; pungent vipak. Suitable for tridosha in moderation. Overeating may affect lungs and stomach.

Sugandha Kokila

Sugandha Kokila is described as an aromatic substance related to the cinnamon/laurel family, used in formulations for cough and digestive disorders.

Sugandha Patra

The text groups several fragrant leaf drugs under this heading toward the end of the Karpuradi Varga. These are various aromatic leaves used in fumigation (dhupa), perfumery, and medicine.

Sugandhabala

Sugandhabala is the root of Pavonia odorata, a fragrant plant found in western and southern India. The roots are aromatic and cooling. The drug is valued for its Pitta-pacifying properties and is used in fever, burning sensation, excessive thirst, and bleeding disorders. It is a common ingredient in cooling and refreshing Ayurvedic preparations.

Sugar

Sweet taste. Example of sweet-tasting food.

Suhagra

This variety of Euphorbia is briefly mentioned in the text alongside other Snuhi species. It is a pencil-thick, cylindrical-branched succulent shrub. The latex is used similarly to other Euphorbia species for purgative and anti-parasitic actions.

Sulphur

Gandhaka (Sulphur) is described as 'Rasapriya' — beloved of Mercury. It is essential in Rasa Shastra formulations as the primary companion of mercury. Four types are described based on color: yellow (best), red, white, and black. Purified Gandhaka is used in skin diseases (especially scabies and ringworm), chronic fevers, worm infestations, and as a Rasayana. Combined with mercury, it forms Kajjali. Externally it is applied in various skin conditions. Gandhaka must be purified through the Dalana process (melting and pouring through cloth into milk/ghee) before use. Verses: 58-62.

Sunflower Seeds

Earth element food.

Surma

Sauviranjana/Surma is a mineral preparation used as eye collyrium (Anjana). It is applied in the eyes to improve vision, treat eye diseases, and as a cosmetic. Various types of Anjana (collyrium) are described including Rasanjana, Pushpanjana, and Srotanjana. Verses: 146-148.

Sweet Clover

Used in Vata-Pitta disorders. Found in Western and Central India.

Sweet Lime

Madhu Nimbuka (Sweet Lime/Mosambi) is a popular citrus fruit with sweet, mildly sour juice. It is widely consumed as fresh juice across India. The juice is cooling, thirst-quenching and easy to digest. It is recommended for patients recovering from illness as it is nourishing and easily digestible. Sweet lime juice is one of the most commonly sold street juices in India. Dose: As food/juice. Verse: 55.

Sweet Olive

Osmanthus fragrans Lour. — fragrant shrub, also listed as Vasuka.

Tagara

Tagarah is a very heavy herb containing lots of the Earth element (pr.thivı- tattva). It sedates the nervous system and va-ta. Too much can dull the mind and be excessively sedating.

Talisapatra

Talisapatra is the Himalayan Yew leaf, hot and pungent, that opens stuck lungs. Dosed 1-2g, it stills cough, eases asthma and hiccup, and anchors Talisadi Churna.

Talmakhana

Talmakhana is the marsh-water Vrishya for male vitality and worn-out tissue. Seeds 4-8 masha rebuild Shukra, ease Mutrakrichchhra, and calm Raktapitta bleeding.

Tamarind

Tamarind is Amlika, the sour fruit that wakes Agni and cuts heaviness. Pulp in chutney aids digestion; seed powder 1-2 masha steadies the heart and liver.

Tapioca

Starch that may be eaten with milk, unlike other starches

Teak

Sagona (Indian Teak) is one of the most valuable timber trees in the world. It grows extensively in Central and Western India. The heartwood is extremely durable and resistant to termites. Medicinally, the wood and bark are used. The bark is astringent, used in headache, stomach problems and bilious fevers. The flowers are diuretic. The wood shavings decoction is used in worm infestations. The heartwood oil is used in skin diseases. The bark contains Tectoquinone. Chemical analysis shows the bark contains about 10-12% tannins. The sawdust is used as an antidote for poisoning. Dose: Bark decoction 1-2 tola. Verse: 42.

Tejbal

Properties similar to Tumburu. Used for dental problems and digestive stimulation.

Tejovati

Zanthoxylum armatum DC. — pungent aromatic used for dental and digestive complaints.

Thalictrum

Thalictrum foliolosum is described as a source of Berberine-rich roots. The roots are yellow due to high Berberine content (about 2.5%). It grows at altitudes of 5000-6000 feet in the Himalayas and can yield up to 9000 feet. The text relates it to Mamira (Coptis teeta) which is another Berberine-containing plant used for eye disorders. Thalictrum root is used as a substitute for Mamira. It is particularly valued for eye diseases (Netra Roga), fevers, and blood purification. The yellow root contains Isorhamnetin (Quercetin derivative) and Kaempferol. Verse refs: pages 432-433.

Thunbergia

Thunbergia alata is described as a variety of Kakanasa. It is a climbing ornamental vine. The plant is used medicinally for worm infestations and swellings. The text mentions it as having attractive flowers. Verse ref: page 441.

Tilak Tree

Tilaka (Wendlandia exerta) is a medium-sized tree found in tropical regions of India at up to 4000 feet. The small flowers are white and arranged in dense terminal panicles. The tree has rough bark. The bark and flowers are used in traditional medicine as astringent and wound-healing agents. The plant has 4-9 x 1-2.5 inch leaves. Verse: 49.

Tobacco (Tamakhu

Aggravates pitta and stimulates vata

Toddy Palm

Tala (Toddy Palm/Palmyra Palm) is one of the tallest palms found in India, growing up to 70-100 feet. The palm inflorescence is tapped for toddy (palm wine) which is sweet when fresh but quickly ferments. The fruit pulp is sweet and eaten fresh. The endosperm (ice-apple/Nungu) is a popular summer delicacy. Palm jaggery (Gur) is made from the sap and is nutritive. The toddy when fermented becomes alcoholic. Fresh toddy is sweet and nutritive, while fermented toddy is intoxicating. The fruit fibers are used as brushes. The leaves are used for thatching and making fans. Dose: As food; toddy fresh only. Verses: 14.

Tomato

Green/yellow: sour, sweet, heating, pungent vipak. Red: sour, slightly pungent, sour vipak, cooling in stomach, heating in intestines. Provokes all doshas raw. Rich in oxalic acid.

Toon Tree

Tuna (Toon) is a large deciduous tree found in the Himalayas and throughout India up to 4000 feet elevation. The bark is astringent, febrifuge and used in leprosy and ulcers. The flowers are used in dysentery. The bark contains tannins and yields a reddish gum. The wood is valuable timber (Indian Mahogany). The bark decoction is used as an astringent wash. The bark contains Calcium and about 0.55% of a pale-colored gum. Dose: Bark decoction 1-2 tola; bark powder 1-2 masha. Verse: 25.

Topaz

A straw-yellow to reddish-blue gem that promotes passion, relieves fear and gives strength and intelligence

Touch-me-not Tree

Biophytum sensitivum is described as a small sensitive plant found in southern India. It has pinnate leaves arranged like a small palm tree. It is used in similar conditions as Mimosa pudica. It is found in tropical regions of India. Verse: mentioned alongside other sensitive plants.

Trayamana

Gentiana kurroo Royle — bitter Himalayan root used for liver and fever.

Trivrit

Operculina turpethum (Linn) Silva Manso — root used as a classical purgative.

Trivrit

Trivrit is Ayurveda's go-to Virechana herb. Shveta root, 3-5g with warm water, clears Pitta-Kapha, resolves Kushtha skin disease and stubborn constipation.

Tulsi

Tulsi is the Sattvic Rasayana for lungs, breath, and clarity. Hot and pungent, it liquefies kapha in cough and asthma, kindles Agni, destroys Ama, and lifts Sadhaka.

Tumburu

Zanthoxylum alatum Roxb. — pungent fruit used for dental and digestive issues.

Tumburu

Bark and fruits used. Applied locally on teeth for toothache. Named 'Toothache Tree' for dental use.

Turmeric

Turmeric (Haridra) is Ayurveda's golden anti-inflammatory: bitter, astringent, hot in virya, K-VP+. 1-3g with warm milk clears Ama, calms skin, kindles Agni.

Ucchata

Blepharis edulis Pers. — herb used as aphrodisiac and tonic.

Udumbara

Ficus glomerata Roxb. — Hemadugdha, Putavriksha, Atti. Bark and fruit used for diabetes and ulcers.

Unripe Banana

Astringent taste. Cooling, drying, heavy.

Unripe Mango

Sour taste.

Vacha

Vacha literally means ‘speech’. Calamus thrives in wet, damp marshland and is a semi-aquatic perennial. Its qualities treat similar ‘terrain’ in the whole system; sluggish, congested, heavy and wet conditions, like those of a marshland, are opposed by the warm, drying, penetrating and stimulating qualities of vacha.

Vaijayanti

Vaijayanti is described as a shrub with small yellow flowers, found near water bodies. It is used as an anthelmintic and in fevers. The leaves and flowers are both medicinal.

Vanda

Vanda (orchid) is described in the context of bone-healing and anti-swelling herbs. The epiphytic orchid grows on tree trunks. Its roots and stems are used medicinally. It is traditionally used to promote fracture healing (like Hadjod) and reduce swellings. Also mentioned as an antidote to certain poisons. Verse ref: page 449.

Vanga

Vanga (Tin) is the fourth metal. It is of two types — Khuraka and Mishraka. Good tin is white, soft, and produces a crackling sound when bent. Vanga Bhasma is primarily indicated in urinary disorders (Prameha), diabetes, urethral discharges, and obesity. It is also used as an aphrodisiac in male sexual disorders. Improperly processed tin causes skin diseases and loss of appetite. Verses: 22-23.

Varahi Kanda

Varahi Kanda is the Vrishya tuber Ayurveda leans on for Kshaya, the wasting that hollows out vigor. Sweet, heavy, cooling, dosed 2-4 masha to rebuild ojas.

Air Potato

Varahikand (Dioscorea bulbifera) is described as a tuber with strength-promoting and aphrodisiac properties. The tuber is the main medicinal part. It produces aerial bulbils (air potatoes). The plant is found in forests across India.

Varshabhu

Varshabhu (Trianthema portulacastrum) is described as a separate herb sometimes confused with Punarnava. It is a prostrate, succulent herb that grows in rainy season in sandy and marshy areas. The text notes it has diuretic and anti-edema properties similar to Punarnava but is considered a different plant. Various organ-specific measurements are given (leaf, root sizes). It is used in edema, digestive disorders, and urinary complaints. Verse refs: page 422.

Varuna

The bark of varuna is a renowned diuretic helping to clear pain and stones from the bladder and kidneys.

Vasaka

Adhatoda beddomei is listed as another species of the Vasaka/Adusa plant described as 'Adyeshtipur Vasaka'. It shares properties with the primary Adhatoda vasica species and is used for similar respiratory conditions.

Vetiver

Vetiver is Ushira, the cooling root Ayurveda reaches for in burning Pitta: Raktapitta bleeds, summer thirst, fevers, and inflamed skin. Dose 3-6g as decoction.

Vidanga

Prime Krimighna (anthelmintic) drug. Especially effective against tapeworms. Fruit resembles black pepper. Dose: 4-8g with honey or buttermilk.

Vidari

Vidari is the Vrishya tuber for wasting and post-partum depletion: sweet, cold, Brumhana root powder 5-10 masha in warm milk rebuilds weight, strength, and ojas.

Vidari Kanda

Ipomoea digitata is another plant called Vidari Kanda. It is a large climber with tuberous roots exuding milky juice when cut. The tubers are very large and fleshy. This species belongs to Convolvulaceae (morning glory family) and is distinct from Pueraria tuberosa. The tuber contains about 10% resin. It is used similarly as Vrishya, Balya, and Stanyajanana. The milky latex is a distinguishing feature. Dose: tuber powder 5-10 masha.

Vidhara

Vriddhadaraka (Argyreia speciosa) is identified as another variety of Vidhara. It is a large, woody, climbing shrub with beautiful silver-hairy leaves reaching up to 1000 feet in some descriptions. The roots are thick and fleshy, whitish inside. The text describes it as sweet, heavy, unctuous and hot in potency. It is used for rejuvenation (Rasayana), increasing strength (Balya), aphrodisiac purposes (Vrishya), and promoting intellect (Medhya). The root has a white milky sap. It is used in male infertility, general debility, and nervous disorders. Verse refs: pages 409.

Vijaysar

Vijaysar is the Prameha tree: heartwood steeped overnight in water tames blood sugar, its red Kino gum staunches diarrhea, bark gargle clears mouth ulcers.

Vinegar

Sour taste. Fermented food.

Vishala

Vishalaa (Trichosanthes palmata) is a large-fruited creeper described among the cucurbit family. It is used as a purgative herb and is helpful in reducing swelling and fevers. The fruit and root are the medicinal parts used. Verse ref: page 405.

Walking Fern

Adiantum caudatum is found in all warm areas with moist conditions. The fronds are drooping and pinnate. It is used for hair problems and cough. The fern has characteristic black, wiry stipes. Also used as an expectorant. Found at 8-18 inches length. Dose: Kvatha. Verse: 289.

Walnut

Akshota (Walnut) is a large deciduous tree found in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and other Himalayan regions. The kernel is sweet, oily and nutritive. It is considered brain-shaped and is one of the best brain foods. The kernel is eaten raw or used in sweets. The oil is used in skin care. The bark is astringent. Walnuts are rich in omega-3 fatty acids and protein. The green fruit husk yields a brown dye. The shell is very hard. Dose: 3-5 walnuts daily. Verse: 40.

Water Chestnut

Paniyamalaka is a moderate-sized thorny tree found in the sub-Himalayan tracts and Eastern India. The fruit is sour, small and eaten fresh or pickled. The bark is astringent. The fruit is used in digestive disorders. Dose: As food. Verse: 25.

Water Chestnut

Shringataka (Water Chestnut/Singhada) is an aquatic plant found in ponds and lakes throughout India. The fruit has horned projections (hence the name 'Singhada' from Shringa = horn). The kernel is white, starchy and sweet. It is eaten raw, boiled or dried into flour (Singhade ka Atta) which is used during fasting. The fruit is highly nutritive, cooling and aphrodisiac. The flour is used as a substitute for cereals during religious fasts. It is particularly useful in debility, weakness and as a nutritive food. The fruit is seasonal, available in winter. Dose: As food. Verses: 33.

Marsilea quadrifolia)

Marsilea minuta Linn. — aquatic fern used as Sunishannaja patra and Swasthika/Jala Changeri.

Watermelon

Kalinda (Watermelon) is a popular summer fruit. It is very cooling, thirst-quenching and diuretic. The fruit contains about 90% water with red or yellowish flesh. It is sweet and cooling. The seeds are also used medicinally - they are diuretic and demulcent. Watermelon juice is an excellent summer drink. The fruit is beneficial in Pitta disorders and burning sensation. Dose: As food. Verse: 10.

White Cleome

The white variety of Hurhur (Cleome) is mentioned as having similar properties to the yellow variety but milder in action.

White Gunja

Gunja (Abrus precatorius) is noted for its characteristic red seeds with black spots used as a standard of weight (Ratti) in traditional Indian systems. The white variety (Shveta Gunja) is considered more medicinal. The seeds contain the highly toxic protein Abrin. Despite toxicity of raw seeds, the processed root and leaves are used in Ayurvedic practice for hair disorders and skin conditions. The roots taste like licorice and are used as a substitute for Yashtimadhu (Glycyrrhiza glabra) in some regions.

White Nagkesar

Nagakesara (Mesua ferrea) is a beautiful evergreen tree with fragrant white flowers with golden stamens. The flower stamens (Kesara) are the primary medicinal part. They are used in bleeding disorders, piles, dysentery, and skin diseases. The tree grows in the Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayan forests. The wood is extremely hard (hence 'ironwood'). The flowers bloom in March-April. The dried stamens are used commercially as a spice and medicine. Verse: 15.

White Punarnava

Sveta Punarnava (White Punarnava) is the white-flowered variety. The text discusses the botanical confusion between Punarnava varieties - Rakta (red, B. diffusa) and Sveta (white, often identified as Trianthema). Both have diuretic and anti-edema properties. The text notes the importance of proper identification. Verse ref: page 422.

White Sariva

Svetasariva is described as the white-rooted variety of Sariva, having similar properties but considered milder. The text notes that both white and dark varieties are used interchangeably in practice. Verse ref: page 427.

White Silk Cotton

Kutashalmali is the white-flowered variety of Silk Cotton, also known as True Kapok. It grows widely in the Southern and Western parts of India. The tree provides Kapok fiber from its seed pods. Its medicinal properties are similar to the red Shalmali but it is considered slightly less potent. The gum and root are used as aphrodisiacs. The bark is used in dysentery. Dose: Similar to Shalmali. Verse: 30.

Wild Basil

Ocimum species — wild/forest variant of tulsi.

Wild Celery

Musakarni (Ipomoea reniformis) is a creeping herb with kidney-shaped leaves. It is used as a brain tonic and rejuvenative. The plant is sometimes confused with Mandukparni due to similar leaf shape. It grows in moist areas and has small purple flowers. Verse: 276.

Wild Date Palm

Pinda Kharjura (Wild Date) is the Indian wild date palm found throughout dry regions. The sap is tapped for toddy and jaggery (Gur). The fruit is smaller than true dates but sweet. The tender central shoot (heart of palm) is edible. Wild date palm toddy is fresh and sweet. Dose: As food. Verse: 43.

Wild Himalayan Cherry

Padmaka is obtained from the bark of Prunus puddum, a tree found in the Himalayan region. It is known for its cooling properties and is widely used in Ayurveda for skin care, bleeding disorders, and burning sensations. The drug acts as a complexion enhancer (Varnya) and is a key ingredient in many cosmetic and dermatological formulations. It pacifies Pitta and Kapha doshas.

Wild Jasmine

Juhee (Jasminum auriculatum) is another jasmine species with smaller but intensely fragrant white flowers. It is a climbing shrub. The flowers are used in garlands and for making perfumed oil. It is found across southern and central India. The flowers are smaller than Chameli but equally fragrant. It blooms during summer. Verse: referenced alongside other jasmines.

Wild Thyme

Found in Himalayan regions at medium altitudes. Contains Thymol. Used in cough, cold, and digestive disorders.

Devnala

Devnala (Lobelia nicotianaefolia) is also known as Wild Tobacco. It grows in Western India and hilly regions at 3-4 thousand feet. The plant reaches 10-12 feet tall. The leaves resemble tobacco. The plant contains Lobeline, which acts as a respiratory stimulant. It is used primarily in Shvasa (asthma) and Kasa (cough). The plant has emetic properties in larger doses. Lobelia excelsa (another species) is also mentioned. The alkaloid Lobeline acts on the respiratory center. Dose: leaf extract 1-2 drops; powder use cautiously.

Wild Turmeric

Similar to common turmeric but more aromatic. Used primarily in cosmetics and skin care. The rhizome smells like mango (hence Mango ginger in some references, though that is more specifically Curcuma amada).

Wild Yam

A rejuvenative tonic herb with aphrodisiac and antispasmodic properties, used for hormonal deficiency, infertility, and nervous conditions.

Willow

Willow is Vetasa, the river-born bark Ayurveda gives for Pitta heat and bleeding. Cold, bitter, astringent; 1-2 tola decoction cools Raktapitta and red, weeping eyes.

Wood Apple

Wood Apple is Ayurveda's Grahi fruit, called Kapittha: sour-sweet ripe pulp halts chronic diarrhea, calms hiccups, cools Amlapitta, steadies Hridroga.

Wrightia

Wrightia tinctoria, a relative of Kutaja, is described as another species sharing similar anti-diarrheal properties. The seeds (Indrayava) are commonly used in Ayurvedic practice. The bark yields a blue dye (Indigotin). It is a medium-sized tree with milky latex. The seeds are small, oblong, and used in fevers and dysentery. The text notes that Wrightia tomentosa (another species) is also used similarly.

Yarrow

A cooling diaphoretic and febrifuge with astringent and hemostatic properties, good for Pitta conditions.

Yavakshara — Barley Alkali

Alkali obtained from burning barley or other plant ashes. Used in Ayurvedic preparations as a digestive and for urinary stones. An important Kshara (alkali) in Ayurvedic therapeutics.

Yellow Dock

Native American herb with anti-pitta properties. A laxative and blood purifier with anti-inflammatory and antitoxic properties. Used for arthritis, dermatitis, hemorrhoids, skin infections and ulcers.

Peet Kaner

Peet Kaner (Thevetia neriifolia), the Yellow Oleander, is described as similar to the red Kaner but with yellow flowers. The seeds contain Thevetin, a cardiac glycoside, comprising about 45% of the seed. Like the red variety, it is highly poisonous. The bark and roots are used medicinally. The milky sap is acrid and causes inflammation. In Ayurveda it is used in heart conditions and skin diseases in carefully measured doses. The text warns that its leaves and seeds are extremely toxic and can cause cardiac arrhythmia if misused.

Yellow Sandalwood

Pita Chandan (Yellow Sandalwood) is described as a variety of Chandan. Some authorities consider it the same as Kaliyaka. It has properties similar to white sandalwood but is specifically mentioned for its Pitta-pacifying and complexion-improving qualities. The mature heartwood of Santalum album may take on a yellow hue. R. Ni. distinguishes it from Shveta Chandan. Reference: Karpuradi Varga, shloka 12-14.

Yellow Split Peas

Astringent taste. Cooling, drying, heavy.

Yuthika

Jasminum humile is the yellow-flowered jasmine found in the Himalayan region. It is a shrub growing at higher altitudes. The flowers are bright yellow and mildly fragrant. It is also known as Pili Chameli. Some consider it an Apocynaceae member but it belongs to Oleaceae. Mentioned in the commentary as one of the jasmine variants. Verse: noted with other jasmines.

Zedoary

Zedoary is white turmeric for stuck Kapha-Vata: pungent, bitter, heating. 1-3g of Kachur powder kindles Agni, breaks flatulence, clears worms, and thins cough.

Zinc

Yashada (Zinc) is used primarily as Yashad Bhasma in eye diseases, diabetes, and wound healing. It has cooling properties and is especially beneficial in Pitta conditions. Zinc must be properly purified and processed before use. Verses: 111-113.

Zucchini

Water element food. Juicy vegetable.